decline of science in england-第26部分

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ence；　　＇The　number　of　vertebrae　in　the　neck　of　the　plesiosaurus　is　a　strange　but　ascertained　fact＇　and　that；　unless　the　memoir　itself　involves　principles　so　contradictory；　as　to　outweigh　the　evidence　of　a　single　witness；　　＇The　kind　of　contradiction　which　is　here　alluded　to；　is　that　which　arises　from　well　ascertained　final　causes；　for　instance；　the　ruminating　stomach　of　the　hoofed　animals；　is　in　no　case　combined　with　the　claw…shaped　form　of　the　extremities；　frequent　in　many　of　the　carniverous　animals；　and　necessary　to　some　of　them　for　the　purpose　of　seizing　their　prey＇　it　can　only　be　regarded　as　a　deception；　without　the　accompaniment　of　wit。

FORGING　differs　from　hoaxing；　inasmuch　as　in　the　latter　the　deceit　is　intended　to　last　for　a　time；　and　then　be　discovered；　to　the　ridicule　of　those　who　have　credited　it；　whereas　the　forger　is　one　who；　wishing　to　acquire　a　reputation　for　science；　records　observations　which　he　has　never　made。　　This　is　sometimes　accomplished　in　astronomical　observations　by　calculating　the　time　and　circumstances　of　the　phenomenon　from　tables。　The　observations　of　the　second　comet　of　1784；　which　was　only　seen　by　the　Chevalier　D'Angos；　were　long　suspected　to　be　a　forgery；　and　were　at　length　proved　to　be　so　by　the　calculations　and　reasonings　of　Encke。　　The　pretended　observations　did　not　accord　amongst　each　other　in　giving　any　possible　orbit。　　But　M。　Encke　detected　an　orbit；　belonging　to　some　of　the　observations；　from　which　he　found　that　all　the　rest　might　be　almost　precisely　deduced；　provided　a　mistake　of　a　unity　in　the　index　of　the　logarithm　of　the　radius　vector　were　supposed　to　have　been　made　in　all　the　rest　of　the　calculations。　　ZACH。　CORR。　ASTRON。　Tom。　IV。　p。　456。

Fortunately　instances　of　the　occurrence　of　forging　are　rare。

TRIMMING　consists　in　clipping　off　little　bits　here　and　there　from　those　observations　which　differ　most　in　excess　from　the　mean；　and　in　sticking　them　on　to　those　which　are　too　small；　a　species　of　〃equitable　adjustment；〃　as　a　radical　would　term　it；　which　cannot　be　admitted　in　science。

This　fraud　is　not　perhaps　so　injurious　（except　to　the　character　of　the　trimmer）　as　cooking；　which　the　next　paragraph　will　teach；　The　reason　of　this　is；　that　the　AVERAGE　given　by　the　observations　of　the　trimmer　is　the　same；　whether　they　are　trimmed　or　untrimmed。　　His　object　is　to　gain　a　reputation　for　extreme　accuracy　in　making　observations；　but　from　respect　for　truth；　or　from　a　prudent　foresight；　he　does　not　distort　the　position　of　the　fact　he　gets　from　nature；　and　it　is　usually　difficult　to　detect　him。　　He　has　more　sense　or　less　adventure　than　the　Cook。

OF　COOKING。　　This　is　an　art　of　various　forms；　the　object　of　which　is　to　give　to　ordinary　observations　the　appearance　and　character　of　those　of　the　highest　degree　of　accuracy。

One　of　its　numerous　processes　is　to　make　multitudes　of　observations；　and　out　of　these　to　select　those　only　which　agree；　or　very　nearly　agree。　　If　a　hundred　observations　are　made；　the　cook　must　be　very　unlucky　if　he　cannot　pick　out　fifteen　or　twenty　which　will　do　for　serving　up。

Another　approved　receipt；　when　the　observations　to　be　used　will　not　come　within　the　limit　of　accuracy；　which　it　has　been　resolved　they　shall　possess；　is　to　calculate　them　by　two　different　formulae。　　The　difference　in　the　constants　employed　in　those　formulae　has　sometimes　a　most　happy　effect　in　promoting　unanimity　amongst　discordant　measures。　　If　still　greater　accuracy　is　required；　three　or　more　formulae　can　be　used。

It　must　be　admitted　that　this　receipt　is　in　some　instances　rather　hazardous：　　but　in　cases　where　the　positions　of　stars；　as　given　in　different　catalogues；　occur；　or　different　tables　of　specific　gravities；　specific　heats；　&c。　&c。；　it　may　safely　be　employed。　As　no　catalogue　contains　all　stars；　the　computer　must　have　recourse　to　several；　and　if　he　is　obliged　to　use　his　judgment　in　the　selection；　it　would　be　cruel　to　deny　him　any　little　advantage　which　might　result　from　it。　　It　may；　however；　be　necessary　to　guard　against　one　mistake　into　which　persons　might　fall。

If　an　observer　calculate　particular　stars　from　a　catalogue　which　makes　them　accord　precisely　with　the　rest　of　his　results；　whereas；　had　they　been　computed　from　other　catalogues　the　difference　would　have　been　considerable；　it　is　very　unfair　to　accuse　him　of　COOKING；　forthose　catalogues　may　have　been　notoriously　inaccurate；　orthey　may　have　been　superseded　by　others　more　recent；　or　made　with　better　instruments；　orthe　observer　may　have　been　totally　ignorant　of　their　existence。

It　sometimes　happens　that　the　constant　quantities　in　formulae　given　by　the　highest　authorities；　although　they　differ　amongst　themselves；　yet　they　will　not　suit　the　materials。　　This　is　precisely　the　point　in　which　the　skill　of　the　artist　is　shown；　and　an　accomplished　cook　will　carry　himself　triumphantly　through　it；　provided　happily　some　mean　value　of　such　constants　will　fit　his　observations。　　He　will　discuss　the　relative　merits　of　formulae　he　has　just　knowledge　enough　to　use；　and；　with　admirable　candour　assigning　their　proper　share　of　applause　to　Bessel；　to　Gauss；　and　to　Laplace；　he　will　take　THAT　mean　value　of　the　constant　used　by　three　such　philosophers；　which　will　make　his　own　observations　accord　to　a　miracle。

There　are　some　few　reflections　which　I　would　venture　to　suggest　to　those　who　cook；　although　they　may　perhaps　not　receive　the　attention　which；　in　my　opinion；　they　deserve；　from　not　coming　from　the　pen　of　an　adept。

In　the　first　place；　it　must　require　much　time　to　try　different　formulae。　　In　the　next　place　it　may　happen　that；　in　the　progress　of　human　knowledge；　more　correct　formula：　　may　be　discovered；　and　constants　may　be　determined　with　far　greater　precision。　　Or　it　may　be　found　that　some　physical　circumstance　influences　the　results；　（although　unsuspected　at　the　time）　the　measure　of　which　circumstance　may　perhaps　be　recovered　from　other　contemporary　registers　of　facts。　　＇Imagine；　by　way　of　example；　the　state　of　the　barometer　or　thermometer。＇　　Or　if　the　selection　of　observations　has　been　made　with　the　view　of　its　agreeing　precisely　with　the　latest　determination；　there　is　some　little　danger　that　the　average　of　the　whole　may　differ　from　that　of　the　chosen　ones；　owing　to　some　law　of　nature；　dependent　on　the　interval　between　the　two　sets；　which　law　some　future　philosopher　may　discover；　and　thus　the　very　best　observations　may　have　been　thrown　aside。

In　all　these；　and　in　numerous　other　cases；　it　would　most　probably　happen　that　the　cook　would　procure　a　temporary　reputation　for　unrivalled　accuracy　at　the　expense　of　his　permanent　fame。　　It　might　also　have　the　effect　of　rendering　even　all　his　crude　observations　of　no　value；　for　that　part　of　the　scientific　world　whose　opinion　is　of　most　weight；　is　generally　so　unreasonable；　as　to　neglect　altogether　the　observations　of　those　in　whom　they　have；　on　any　occasion；　discovered　traces　of　the　artist。　　In　fact；　the　character　of　an　observer；　as　of　a　woman；　if　doubted　is　destroyed。

The　manner　in　which　facts　apparently　lost　are　restored　to　light；　even　after　considerable　intervals　of　time；　is　sometimes　very　unexpected；　and　a　few　examples　may　not　be　without　their　use。　　The　thermometers　employed　by　the　philosophers　who　composed　the　Academia　Del　Cimento；　have　been　lost；　and　as　they　did　not　use　the　two　fixed　points　of　freezing　and　boiling　water；　the　results　of　a　great　mass　of　observations　have　remained　useless　from　our　ignorance　of　the　value　of　a　degree　on　their　instrument。　　M。　Libri；　of　Florence；　proposed　to　regain　this　knowledge　by　comparing　their　registers　of　the　temperature　of　the　human　body　and　of　that　of　some　warm　springs　in　Tuscany；　which　have　preserved　their　heat　uniform　during　a　century；　as　well　as　of　other　things　similarly　circumstanced。

Another　illustration　was　pointed　out　to　me　by　M。　Gazzeri；　the　Professor　of　Chemistry　at　Florence。　　A　few　years　ago　an　important　suit　in　one　of　the　legal　courts　of　Tuscany　depended　on　ascertaining　whether　a　certain　word　had　been　erased　by　some　chemical　process　from　a　deed　then　before　the　court。　　The　party　who　insisted　that　an　erasure　had　been　made；　availed　themselves　of　the　knowledge　of　M。　Gazzeri；　who；　concluding　that　those　who　committed　the　fraud　would　be　satisfied　by　the　disappearance　of　the　colouring　matter　of　the　ink；　suspected　（either　from　some　colourless　matter　remaining　in　the　letters；　or　perhaps　from　the　agency　of　the　solvent　having　weakened　the　fabric　of　the　paper　itself　beneath　the　supposed　letters）　that　the　effect　of　the　slow　application　of　heat　would　be　to　render　some　difference　of　texture　or　of　applied　substance　evident；　by　some　variety　in　the　shade　of　colour　which　heat　in　such　circumstances　might　be　expected　to　produce。　　Permission　having　been　given　to　try　the　experiment；　on　the　application　of　heat　the　important　word　reappeared；　to　the　great　satisfaction　of　the　court。



CHAPTER　VI。

SUGGESTIONS　FOR　THE　ADVANCEMENT　OF　SCIENCE　IN　ENGLAND。


SECTION　1。

OF　THE　NECESSITY　THAT　MEMBERS　OF　THE　ROYAL　SOCIETY　SHOULD　EXPRESS　THEIR　OPINIONS。

One　of　the　causes　which　has　contributed　to　the　success　of　the　PARTY；　is　to　be　found　in　the　great　reluctance　with　which　many　of　those　whose　names　added　lustre　to　the　Society　expressed　their　opinions；　and　the　little　firmness　w