wealbk01-第31部分

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demand　for　most　sorts　of　plain　linen　and　woollen　cloth　is　pretty

uniform；　so　is　likewise　the　price。　But　there　are　other

employments　in　which　the　same　quantity　of　industry　will　not

always　produce　the　same　quantity　of　commodities。　The　same

quantity　of　industry；　for　example；　will；　in　different　years；

produce　very　different　quantities　of　corn；　wine；　hops；　sugar；

tobacco；　etc。　The　price　of　such　commodities；　therefore；　varies

not　only　with　the　variations　of　demand；　but　with　the　much　greater

and　more　frequent　variations　of　quantity；　and　is　consequently

extremely　fluctuating。　But　the　profit　of　some　of　the　dealers　must

necessarily　fluctuate　with　the　price　of　the　commodities。　The

operations　of　the　speculative　merchant　are　principally　employed

about　such　commodities。　He　endeavours　to　buy　them　up　when　he

foresees　that　their　price　is　likely　to　rise；　and　to　sell　them

when　it　is　likely　to　fall。

　　　　　Thirdly；　this　equality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock

can　take　only　in　such　as　are　the　sole　or　principal　employments　of

those　who　occupy　them。

　　　　　When　a　person　derives　his　subsistence　from　one　employment；

which　does　not　occupy　the　greater　part　of　his　time；　in　the

intervals　of　his　leisure　he　is　often　willing　to　work　as　another

for　less　wages　than　would　otherwise　suit　the　nature　of　the

employment。

　　　　　There　still　subsists　in　many　parts　of　Scotland　a　set　of

people　called　Cotters　or　Cottagers；　though　they　were　more

frequent　some　years　ago　than　they　are　now。　They　are　a　sort　of

outservants　of　the　landlords　and　farmers。　The　usual　reward　which

they　receive　from　their　masters　is　a　house；　a　small　garden　for

pot…herbs；　as　much　grass　as　will　feed　a　cow；　and；　perhaps；　an

acre　or　two　of　bad　arable　land。　When　their　master　has　occasion

for　their　labour；　he　gives　them；　besides；　two　pecks　of　oatmeal　a

week；　worth　about　sixteenpence　sterling。　During　a　great　part　of

the　year　he　has　little　or　no　occasion　for　their　labour；　and　the

cultivation　of　their　own　little　possession　is　not　sufficient　to

occupy　the　time　which　is　left　at　their　own　disposal。　When　such

occupiers　were　more　numerous　than　they　are　at　present；　they　are

said　to　have　been　willing　to　give　their　spare　time　for　a　very

small　recompense　to　anybody；　and　to　have　wrought　for　less　wages

than　other　labourers。　In　ancient　times　they　seem　to　have　been

common　all　over　Europe。　In　countries　ill　cultivated　and　worse

inhabited；　the　greater　part　of　landlords　and　farmers　could　not

otherwise　provide　themselves　with　the　extraordinary　number　of

hands　which　country　labour　requires　at　certain　season。　The　daily

or　weekly　recompense　which　such　labourers　occasionally　received

from　their　masters　was　evidently　not　the　whole　price　of　their

labour。　Their　small　tenement　made　a　considerable　part　of　it。　This

daily　or　weekly　recompense；　however；　seems　to　have　been

considered　as　the　whole　of　it；　by　many　writers　who　have　collected

the　prices　of　labour　and　provisions　in　ancient　times；　and　who

have　taken　pleasures　in　representing　both　as　wonderfully　low。

　　　　　The　produce　of　such　labour　comes　frequently　cheaper　to

market　than　would　otherwise　suitable　to　its　nature。　Stockings　in

many　parts　of　Scotland　are　knit　much　cheaper　than　they　can

anywhere　be　wrought　upon　the　loom。　They　are　the　work　of　servants

and　labourers；　who　derive　the　principal　part　of　their　subsistence

from　some　other　employment。　More　than　a　thousand　pair　of　Shetland

stockings　are　annually　imported　into　Leith；　of　which　the　price　is

from　fivepence　to　sevenpence　a　pair。　At　Lerwick；　the　small

capital　of　the　Shetland　Islands；　tenpence　a　day；　I　have　been

assured；　is　a　common　price　of　common　labour。　In　the　same　islands

they　knit　worsted　stockings　to　the　value　of　a　guinea　a　pair　and

upwards。

　　　　　The　spinning　of　linen　yarn　is　carried　on　in　Scotland　nearly

in　the　same　way　as　the　knitting　of　stockings　by　servants；　who　are

chiefly　hired　for　other　purposes。　They　earn　but　a　very　scanty

subsistence；　who　endeavour　to　get　their　whole　livelihood　by

either　of　those　trades。　In　most　parts　of　Scotland　she　is　a　good

spinner　who　can　earn　twentypence　a　week。

　　　　　In　opulent　countries　the　market　is　generally　so　extensive

that　any　one　trade　is　sufficient　to　employ　the　whole　labour　and

stock　of　those　who　occupy　it。　Instances　of　people's　living　by　one

employment；　and　at　the　same　time　deriving　some　little　advantage

from　another；　occur　chiefly　in　poor　countries。　The　following

instance；　however；　of　something　of　the　same　kind　is　to　be　found

in　the　capital　of　a　very　rich　one。　There　is　no　city　in　Europe；　I

believe；　in　which　house…rent　is　dearer　than　in　London；　and　yet　I

know　no　capital　in　which　a　furnished　apartment　can　be　hired　as

cheap。　Lodging　is　not　only　much　cheaper　in　London　than　in　Paris；

it　is　much　cheaper　than　in　Edinburgh　of　the　same　degree　of

goodness；　and　what　may　seem　extraordinary；　the　dearness　of

house…rent　is　the　cause　of　the　cheapness　of　lodging。　The　dearness

of　house…rent　in　London　arises　not　only　from　those　causes　which

render　it　dear　in　all　great　capitals；　the　dearness　of　labour；　the

dearness　of　all　the　materials　of　building；　which　must　generally

be　brought　from　a　great　distance；　and　above　all　the　dearness　of

ground…rent；　every　landlord　acting　the　part　the　part　of　a

monopolist；　and　frequently　exacting　a　higher　rent　for　a　single

acre　of　bad　land　in　a　town　than　can　be　had　for　a　hundred　of　the

best　in　the　country；　but　it　arises　in　part　from　the　peculiar

manners　and　customs　of　the　people；　which　oblige　every　master　of　a

family　to　hire　a　whole　house　from　top　to　bottom。　A　dwelling…house

in　England　means　everything　that　is　contained　under　the　same

roof。　In　France；　Scotland；　and　many　other　parts　of　Europe；　it

frequently　means　no　more　than　a　single　story。　A　tradesman　in

London　is　obliged　to　hire　a　whole　house　in　that　part　of　the　town

where　his　customers　live。　His　shop　is　upon　the　ground…floor；　and

he　and　his　family　sleep　in　the　garret；　and　he　endeavours　to　pay　a

part　of　his　house…rent　by　letting　the　two　middle　stories　to

lodgers。　He　expects　to　maintain　his　family　by　his　trade；　and　not

by　his　lodgers。　Whereas；　at　Paris　and　Edinburgh；　the　people　who

let　lodgings　have　commonly　no　other　means　of　subsistence　and　the

price　of　the　lodging　must　pay；　not　only　the　rent　of　the　house；

but　the　whole　expense　of　the　family。　　

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　PART　2

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　Inequalities　by　the　Policy　of　Europe　

　　　　　SUCH　are　the　inequalities　in　the　whole　of　advantages　and

disadvantages　of　the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；

which　the　defect　of　any　of　the　three　requisites　above　mentioned

must　occasion；　even　where　there　is　the　most　perfect　liberty。　But

the　policy　of　Europe；　by　not　leaving　things　at　perfect　liberty；

occasions　other　inequalities　of　much　greater　importance。

　　　　　It　does　this　chiefly　in　the　three　following　ways。　First；　by

restraining　the　competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller

number　than　would　otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them；

secondly；　by　increasing　it　in　others　beyond　what　it　naturally

would　be；　and；　thirdly；　by　obstructing　the　free　circulation　of

labour　and　stock；　both　from　employment　to　employment　and　from

place　to　place。

　　　　　First；　the　policy　of　Europe　occasions　a　very　important

inequality　in　the　whole　of　the　advantages　and　disadvantages　of

the　different　employments　of　labour　and　stock；　by　restraining　the

competition　in　some　employments　to　a　smaller　number　than　might

otherwise　be　disposed　to　enter　into　them。

　　　　　The　exclusive　privileges　of　corporations　are　the　principal

means　it　makes　use　of　for　this　purpose。

　　　　　The　exclusive　privilege　of　an　incorporated　trade　necessarily

restrains　the　competition；　in　the　town　where　it　is　established；

to　those　who　are　free　of　the　trade。　To　have　served　an

apprenticeship　in　the　town；　under　a　master　properly　qualified；　is

commonly　the　necessary　requisite　for　obtaining　this　freedom。　The

bye　laws　of　the　corporation　regulate　sometimes　the　number　of

apprentices　which　any　master　is　allowed　to　have；　and　almost

always　the　number　of　years　which　each　apprentice　is　obliged　to

serve。　The　intention　of　both　regulations　is　to　restrain　the

competition　to　a　much　smaller　number　than　might　otherwise　be

disposed　to　enter　into　the　trade。　The　limitation　of　the　number　of

apprentices　restrains　it　directly。　A　long　term　of　apprenticeship

restrains　it　more　indirectly；　but　as　effectually；　by　increasing

the　expense　of　education。

　　　　　In　Sheffield　no　master　cutler　can　have　more　than　one

apprentice　at　a　time；　by　a　bye　law　of　the　corporation。　In　Norfolk

and　Norwich　no　master　weaver　can　have　more　than　two　apprentices；

under　pain　of　forfeiting　five　pounds　a　month　to　the　king。　No

master　hatter　can　have　more　than　two　apprentices　anywhere　in

England；　or　in　the　English　plantations；　under　pain　of　forfeiting

five　pounds　a　month；　half　to　the　king　and　half　to　him　who　shall

sue　in　any　court　of