the story of mankind-第55部分

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and　the　Poles；　Germany；　encouraged　by　the　example　of　Prussia；

began　to　regain　self…confidence。　And　this　was　the　work　of

the　little　old　man；　with　his　hook…nose　and　his　old　uniforms　covered

with　snuff；　who　said　very　funny　but　very　unpleasant　things

about　his　neighbours；　and　who　played　the　scandalous　game　of

eighteenth　century　diplomacy　without　any　regard　for　the　truth；

provided　he　could　gain　something　by　his　lies。　This　in　spite　of

his　book；　‘‘Anti…Macchiavelli。''　In　the　year　1786　the　end

came。　His　friends　were　all　gone。　Children　he　had　never　had。

He　died　alone；　tended　by　a　single　servant　and　his　faithful

dogs；　whom　he　loved　better　than　human　beings　because；　as　he

said；　they　were　never　ungrateful　and　remained　true　to　their

friends。







THE　MERCANTILE　SYSTEM



HOW　THE　NEWLY　FOUNDED　NATIONAL　OR

DYNASTIC　STATES　OF　EUROPE　TRIED　TO

MAKE　THEMSELVES　RICH　AND　WHAT　WAS

MEANT　BY　THE　MERCANTILE　SYSTEM





WE　have　seen　how；　during　the　sixteenth　and　the　seventeenth

centuries；　the　states　of　our　modern　world　began　to　take　shape。

Their　origins　were　different　in　almost　every　case。　Some　had

been　the　result　of　the　deliberate　effort　of　a　single　king。　Others

had　happened　by　chance。　Still　others　had　been　the　result　of

favourable　natural　geographic　boundaries。　But　once　they　had

been　founded；　they　had　all　of　them　tried　to　strengthen　their

internal　administration　and　to　exert　the　greatest　possible　influence

upon　foreign　affairs。　All　this　of　course　had　cost　a　great

deal　of　money。　The　mediaeval　state　with　its　lack　of　centralised

power　did　not　depend　upon　a　rich　treasury。　The　king　got　his

revenues　from　the　crown　domains　and　his　civil　service　paid　for

itself。　The　modern　centralised　state　was　a　more　complicated

affair。　The　old　knights　disappeared　and　hired　government

officials　or　bureaucrats　took　their　place。　Army；　navy；　and

internal　administration　demanded　millions。　The　question　then

became　where　was　this　money　to　be　found？



Gold　and　silver　had　been　a　rare　commodity　in　the　middle

ages。　The　average　man；　as　I　have　told　you；　never　saw　a　gold

piece　as　long　as　he　lived。　Only　the　inhabitants　of　the　large

cities　were　familiar　with　silver　coin。　The　discovery　of　America

and　the　exploitation　of　the　Peruvian　mines　changed　all　this。

The　centre　of　trade　was　transferred　from　the　Mediterranean　to

the　Atlantic　seaboard。　The　old　‘‘commercial　cities''　of　Italy　lost

their　financial　importance。　New　‘‘commercial　nations''　took

their　place　and　gold　and　silver　were　no　longer　a　curiosity。



Through　Spain　and　Portugal　and　Holland　and　England；

precious　metals　began　to　find　their　way　to　Europe　The　sixteenth

century　had　its　own　writers　on　the　subject　of　political

economy　and　they　evolved　a　theory　of　national　wealth　which

seemed　to　them　entirely　sound　and　of　the　greatest　possible

benefit　to　their　respective　countries。　They　reasoned　that　both

gold　and　silver　were　actual　wealth。　Therefore　they　believed

that　the　country　with　the　largest　supply　of　actual　cash　in　the

vaults　of　its　treasury　and　its　banks　was　at　the　same　time　the

richest　country。　And　since　money　meant　armies；　it　followed

that　the　richest　country　was　also　the　most　powerful　and　could

rule　the　rest　of　the　world。



We　call　this　system　the　‘‘mercantile　system；''　and　it　was

accepted　with　the　same　unquestioning　faith　with　which　the

early　Christians　believed　in　Miracles　and　many　of　the　present…

day　American　business　men　believe　in　the　Tariff。　In　practice；

the　Mercantile　system　worked　out　as　follows：　To　get　the

largest　surplus　of　precious　metals　a　country　must　have　a

favourable　balance　of　export　trade。　If　you　can　export　more　to

your　neighbour　than　he　exports　to　your　own　country；　he　will

owe　you　money　and　will　be　obliged　to　send　you　some　of　his

gold。　Hence　you　gain　and　he　loses。　As　a　result　of　this　creed；

the　economic　program　of　almost　every　seventeenth　century

state　was　as　follows：



1。　Try　to　get　possession　of　as　many　precious　metals

as　you　can。



2。　Encourage　foreign　trade　in　preference　to　domestic

trade。



3。　Encourage　those　industries　which　change　raw　materials

into　exportable　finished　products。



4。　Encourage　a　large　population；　for　you　will　need　workmen

for　your　factories　and　an　agricultural　community

does　not　raise　enough　workmen。



5。　Let　the　State　watch　this　process　and　interfere　whenever

it　is　necessary　to　do　so。





Instead　of　regarding　International　Trade　as　something

akin　to　a　force　of　nature　which　would　always　obey　certain　natural

laws　regardless　of　man's　interference；　the　people　of　the

sixteenth　and　seventeenth　centuries　tried　to　regulate　their

commerce　by　the　help　of　official　decrees　and　royal　laws　and　financial

help　on　the　part　of　the　government。



In　the　sixteenth　century　Charles　V　adopted　this　Mercantile

System　（which　was　then　something　entirely　new）　and　introduced

it　into　his　many　possessions。　Elizabeth　of　England

flattered　him　by　her　imitation。　The　Bourbons；　especially　King

Louis　XIV；　were　fanatical　adherents　of　this　doctrine　and　Colbert；

his　great　minister　of　finance；　became　the　prophet　of　Mercantilism

to　whom　all　Europe　looked　for　guidance。



The　entire　foreign　policy　of　Cromwell　was　a　practical

application　of　the　Mercantile　System。　It　was　invariably　directed

against　the　rich　rival　Republic　of　Holland。　For　the　Dutch

shippers；　as　the　common…carriers　of　the　merchandise　of　Europe；

had　certain　leanings　towards　free…trade　and　therefore　had

to　be　destroyed　at　all　cost。



It　will　be　easily　understood　how　such　a　system　must　affect

the　colonies。　A　colony　under　the　Mercantile　System　became

merely　a　reservoir　of　gold　and　silver　and　spices；　which　was

to　be　tapped　for　the　benefit　of　the　home　country。　The　Asiatic；

American　and　African　supply　of　precious　metals　and　the　raw

materials　of　these　tropical　countries　became　a　monopoly　of

the　state　which　happened　to　own　that　particular　colony。　No

outsider　was　ever　allowed　within　the　precincts　and　no　native

was　permitted　to　trade　with　a　merchant　whose　ship　flew　a

foreign　flag。



Undoubtedly　the　Mercantile　System　encouraged　the　development

of　young　industries　in　certain　countries　where　there

never　had　been　any　manufacturing　before。　It　built　roads

and　dug　canals　and　made　for　better　means　of　transportation。

It　demanded　greater　skill　among　the　workmen　and　gave　the

merchant　a　better　social　position；　while　it　weakened　the　power

of　the　landed　aristocracy。



On　the　other　hand；　it　caused　very　great　misery。　It　made

the　natives　in　the　colonies　the　victims　of　a　most　shameless

exploitation。　It　exposed　the　citizens　of　the　home　country　to　an

even　more　terrible　fate。　It　helped　in　a　great　measure　to　turn

every　land　into　an　armed　camp　and　divided　the　world　into　little

bits　of　territory；　each　working　for　its　own　direct　benefit；

while　striving　at　all　times　to　destroy　the　power　of　its　neighbours

and　get　hold　of　their　treasures。　It　laid　so　much　stress

upon　the　importance　of　owning　wealth　that　‘‘being　rich''　came

to　be　regarded　as　the　sole　virtue　of　the　average　citizen。　Economic

systems　come　and　go　like　the　fashions　in　surgery　and

in　the　clothes　of　women；　and　during　the　nineteenth　century　the

Mercantile　System　was　discarded　in　favor　of　a　system　of　free

and　open　competition。　At　least；　so　I　have　been　told。







THE　AMERICAN　REVOLUTION



AT　THE　END　OF　THE　EIGHTEENTH　CENTURY

EUROPE　HEARD　STRANGE　REPORTS　OF

SOMETHING　WHICH　HAD　HAPPENED　IN

THE　WILDERNESS；　OF　THE　NORTH　AMERICAN

CONTINENT。　THE　DESCENDANTS

OF　THE　MEN　WHO　HAD　PUNISHED　KING

CHARLES　FOR　HIS　INSISTENCE　UPON　HIS

‘‘DIVINE　RIGHTS''　ADDED　A　NEW　CHAPTER

TO　THE　OLD　STORY　OF　THE　STRUGGLE

FOR　SELF…GOVERNMENT





FOR　the　sake　of　convenience；　we　ought　to　go　back　a

few　centuries　and　repeat　the　early　history　of　the　great

struggle　for　colonial　possessions。



As　soon　as　a　number　of　European　nations　had　been

created　upon　the　new　basis　of　national　or　dynastic　interests；

that　is　to　say；　during　and　immediately　after　the　Thirty

Years　War；　their　rulers；　backed　up　by　the　capital　of

their　merchants　and　the　ships　of　their　trading　companies；

continued　the　fight　for　more　territory　in　Asia；　Africa　and　America。



The　Spaniards　and　the　Portuguese　had　been　exploring　the

Indian　Sea　and　the　Pacific　Ocean　for　more　than　a　century　ere

Holland　and　England　appeared　upon　the　stage。　This　proved

an　advantage　to　the　latter。　The　first　rough　work　had　already

been　done。　What　is　more；　the　earliest　navigators　had　so　often

made　themselves　unpopular　with　the　Asiatic　and　American　and

African　natives　that　both　the　English　and　the　Dutch　were

welcomed　as　friends　and　deliverers。　We　cannot　claim　any

superior　virtues　for　either　of　these　two　races。　But　they　were

merchants　before　everything　else。　They　never　allowed　religious

considerations　to　interfere　with　their　practical　common　sense。

During　their　first　relations　with　weaker　races；　all　European

nations　have　behaved　with　shocking　brut