the origin of the distinction of ranks-第23部分

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ormer　period　was　frequently　elective；　is；　among　shepherds；　more　commonly　transmitted　from　father　to　son　by　hereditary　succession。　As　the　chief　possesses　the　largest　estate；　so　he　represents　the　most　powerful　family　in　the　tribe；　a　family　from　which　all　the　rest　are　vain　of　being　descended；　and　the　superiority　of　which　they　have　been　uniformly　accustomed　to　acknowledge。　He　enjoys　not　only　that　rank　and　consequence　which　is　derived　from　his　own　opulence；　but　seem　entitled　to　the　continuance　of　that　respect　and　submission　which　has　been　paid　to　his　ancestors；　and　it　rarely　happens　that　any　other　person；　though　of　superior　abilities；　is　capable　of　supplanting　him；　or　of　diverting　the　course　of　that　influence　which　has　flowed　so　long　in　the　same　channel。　　　　　The　acquisition　of　wealth　in　herds　and　flocks；　does　not　immediately　give　rise　to　the　idea　of　property　in　land。　The　different　families　of　a　tribe　are　accustomed　to　feed　their　cattle　promiscuously；　and　have　no　separate　possession　or　enjoyment　of　the　ground　employed　for　that　purpose。　Having　exhausted　one　field　of　pasture；　they　proceed　to　another；　and　when　at　length　they　find　it　convenient　to　move　their　tents；　and　change　the　place　of　their　residence；　it　is　of　no　consequence　who　shall　succeed　them；　and　occupy　the　spot　which　they　have　relinquished。　　　　　'Is　not　the　whole　land　before　thee？'　says　Abraham　to　Lot　his　kinsman；　'　Separate　thyself；　I　pray　thee；　from　me：　if　thou　wilt　take　the　left　hand；　then　I　will　go　to　the　right；　or　if　thou　depart　to　the　right　hand；　then　I　will　go　to　the　left。'（8*）　　　　　The　wild　Arabs；　who　inhabit　a　barren　country；　are　accustomed　to　change　their　residence　every　fortnight；　or　at　least　every　month。　The　same　wandering　life　is　led　by　the　Tartars；　though；　from　the　greater　fertility　of　their　soil；　their　migrations　are　perhaps　less　frequent。　If　people　in　this　situation；　during　their　temporary　abode　in　any　one　part　of　a　country；　should　cultivate　a　piece　of　ground；　this　also；　like　that　which　is　employed　in　pasture；　will　naturally　be　possessed　in　common。　The　management　of　it　is　regarded　as　an　extraordinary　and　difficult　work；　in　which　it　is　necessary　that　they　should　unite　and　assist　one　another；　and　therefore；　as　each　individual　is　intitled　to　the　fruit　of　his　own　labour；　the　crop；　which　has　been　raised　by　the　joint　labour　of　all；　is　deemed　the　property　of　the　whole　society。（9*）　　　　　Thus　among　the　natives　of　the　island　of　Borneo；　it　is　customary；　in　time　of　harvest；　that　every　family　of　a　tribe　should　reap　so　much　grain　as　is　sufficient　for　their　maintenance；　and　the　remainder　is　laid　up　by　the　public；　as　a　provision　for　any　future　demand。　Similar　practices　have　probably　taken　place　in　most　countries；　when　the　inhabitants　first　applied　themselves　to　the　cultivation　of　the　earth。　The　Suevi　＇according　to　Caesar＇　are　by　far　the　greatest　and　most　warlike　of　the　German　tribes。　They　are　said　to　possess　an　hundred　villages；　from　each　of　which　a　thousand　armed　men　are　annually　led　forth　to　war。　The　rest　of　the　people　remain　at　home；　and　cultivate　the　ground　for　both。　These　the　following　year　take　arms；　and　the　former；　in　their　turn；　remain　at　home。　Thus　neither　agriculture；　nor　the　knowledge　and　practice　of　the　military　art　is　neglected。　But　they　have　no　separate　landed　possessions　belonging　to　individuals；　and　are　not　allowed　to　reside　longer　than　a　year　in　one　place。　They　make　little　use　of　grain；　but　live　chiefly　upon　milk　and　the　flesh　of　their　cattle；　and　are　much　addicted　to　hunting。（10*）　　　　　But　the　settlement　of　a　village　in　some　particular　place；　with　a　view　to　the　further　improvement　of　agriculture；　has　a　tendency　to　abolish　this　ancient　community　of　goods；　and　to　produce　a　separate　appropriation　of　landed　estates。　When　mankind　have　made　some　proficiency　in　the　various　branches　of　husbandry；　they　have　no　longer　occasion　to　exercise　them　by　the　united　deliberation　and　counsel　of　a　whole　society。　They　grow　weary　of　those　joint　measures；　by　which　they　are　subjected　to　continual　disputes　concerning　the　distribution　and　management　of　their　common　property；　while　every　one　is　desirous　of　employing　his　labour　for　his　own　advantage；　and　of　having　a　separate　possession；　which　he　may　enjoy　according　to　his　own　inclination。　Thus；　by　a　sort　of　tacit　agreement；　the　different　families　of　a　village　are　led　to　cultivate　different　portions　of　land　apart　from　one　another；　and　thereby　acquire　a　right　to　the　respective　produce　arising　from　the　labour　that　each　of　them　has　bestowed。　In　order　to　reap　what　they　have　sown；　it　is　necessary　that　they　should　have　the　management　of　the　subject　upon　which　it　is　produced；　so　that　from　having　a　right　to　the　crop；　they　appear　of　course　entitled　to　the　exclusive　possession　of　the　ground　itself。　This　possession；　however；　from　the　imperfect　state　of　early　cultivation；　is　at　first　continued　only　from　the　seed…time　to　the　harvest；　and　during　the　rest　of　the　year；　the　lands　of　a　whole　village　are　used　in　common　for　pasturing　their　cattle。　Traces　of　this　ancient　community　of　pasture…grounds；　during　the　winter　season；　may　still　be　discovered　in　several　parts　of　Scotland。　But　after　a　person　has　long　cultivated　the　same　field；　his　possession　becomes　gradually　more　and　more　complete；　it　is　continued　during　the　whole　year　without　interruption；　and　when　by　his　industry　and　labour　he　seems　justly　entitled；　not　only　to　the　immediate　crop　that　is　raised；　but　to　all　the　future　advantages　arising　from　the　melioration　of　the　soil。　　　　　The　additional　influence　which　the　captain　of　a　tribe　or　village　is　enabled　to　derive　from　this　alteration　of　circumstances；　may　be　easily　imagined。　As　the　land　employed　in　tillage　is　at　first　possessed　in　common　the　different　branches　of　husbandry　are　at　first　carried　on；　and　even　the　distribution　of　the　produce　is　made；　under　the　inspection　of　their　leader　who　claims　the　superintendence　of　all　their　public　concerns。　　　　　Among　the　negroes　upon　the　banks　of　the　river　Gambia；　the　seed…time　is　a　period　of　much　festivity。　Those　who　belong　to　the　same　village　unite　in　cultivating　the　ground；　and　the　chief　appears　at　their　head；　armed　as　if　he　were　going　out　to　battle；　and　surrounded　by　a　band　of　musicians；　resembling　the　bards　of　the　Celtic　nations；　who；　by　singing　and　playing　upon　musical　instruments；　endeavour　to　encourage　the　labourers。　The　chief　frequently　joins　in　the　music；　and　the　workmen　accompany　their　labour　with　a　variety　of　ridiculous　gestures　and　grimaces；　according　to　the　different　tunes　with　which　they　are　entertained。　　　　　Upon　the　Gold　Coast　each　individual　must　obtain　the　consent　of　the　chief　before　he　has　liberty　to　cultivate　so　much　ground　as　is　necessary　for　his　subsistence。　At　the　same　time　when　a　person　has　been　allowed　to　cultivate　a　particular　spot；　it　should　seem　that　he　has　the　exclusive　privilege　of　reaping　the　crop。　This　may　be　considered　as　one　step　towards　the　appropriation　of　land。　　　　　When　men　are　disposed　to　separate　and　divide　their　landed　possessions；　every　family；　according　as　it　is　numerous　and　powerful；　will　be　in　a　condition　to　occuPy　and　appropriate　a　suitable　extent　of　territory。　For　this　reason　the　chief；　from　his　superior　wealth　in　cattle；　and　the　number　of　his　domestics；　as　well　as　from　his　dignity　and　personal　abilities；　can　hardly　fail　to　acquire　a　much　larger　estate；　than　any　other　member　of　the　community。　His　retainers　must　of　consequence　be　increased　in　proportion　to　the　enlargement　of　his　domain；　and　as　these　are　either　maintained　in　his　family；　or　live　upon　his　ground　in　the　situation　of　tenants　at　will；　they　depend　entirely　upon　him　for　subsistence。　They　become　therefore；　necessarily　subservient　to　his　interest；　and　may　at　pleasure　be　obliged　either　to　labour　or　to　fight　upon　his　account。　The　number　of　dependents　whom　he　is　thus　capable　of　maintaining　will　be　so　much　greater；　as；　from　the　simplicity　of　his　manners；　he　has　no　occasion　to　purchase　many　articles　of　luxury；　and　almost　his　whole　fortune　is　consumed　in　supplying　the　bare　necessaries　of　life。　　　　　The　estate　which　is　acquired　by　a　chief；　after　the　appropriation　of　land；　is　not　only　more　extensive　than　what　he　formerly　possessed　in　herds　and　flocks；　but　at　the　same　time　is　less　liable　to　be　destroyed　or　impaired　by　accidents；　so　that　the　authority　which　is　founded　upon　it　becomes　more　permanent；　and　is　apt　to　receive　a　continued　accumulation　of　strength　by　remaining　for　ages　in　the　same　family。　Section　II　The　powers　with　which　the　chief　of　a　rude　tribe　is　commonly　invested

　　　　The　powers　which　belong　to　this　early　magistrate；　who　is　thus　exalted　to　the　head　of　a　rude　society；　are　such　as　might　be　expected　from　the　nature　of　his　office；　and　from　the　circumstances　of　the　people　over　whom　he　is　placed。　　　　　He　is　at　first　the　commander　of　their　forces；　and　has　merely　the　direction　of　their　measures　during　the　time　of　an　engagement。　But　having　acted　for　some　time　in　this　capacity；　he　finds　encouragement　to　exert　his　authority　on　other　occasions；　and　is　entrusted　with　various　branches　of　public　administration。　　　　　From　his　peculiar　situation；　he　is　more　immediately　led　to　attend　to　the　defence　of　the　society；　to　suggest　such　precautions　as　may　be　necessary　for　that　purpose；　and　to　point　out　those　enterprises　which　he　think　it　would　be　expedient