the origin of the distinction of ranks-第37部分

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lihood；　have　little　occasion　to　court　the　favour　of　their　superiors；　there　we　may　expect　that　ideas　of　liberty　will　be　universally　diffused。　This　happy　arrangement　of　things；　is　naturally　produced　by　commerce　and　manufactures；　but　it　would　be　as　vain　to　look　for　it　in　the　uncultivated　parts　of　the　world；　as　to　look　for　the　independent　spirit　of　an　English　waggoner；　among　persons　of　low　rank　in　the　highlands　of　Scotland。　Chapter　VI　The　authority　of　a　Master　over　his　Servants　Section　I　The　condition　of　servants　in　the　primitive　ages　of　the　world　　　　　In　the　foregoing　chapters　we　have　surveyed　the　principal　distinctions　of　rank　which　occur　among　the　free　inhabitants　of　a　country；　and　have　endeavoured　to　mark　the　progress　of　society；　with　regard　to　the　power　of　the　husband；　the　father；　and　the　civil　magistrate。　It　may　now　be　proper　to　consider　the　state　of　the　servants；　and　to　observe　the　degrees　of　authority　which　the　laws　and　custom　of　different　nations　have　bestowed　upon　the　master。　　　　　From　the　situation　of　mankind　in　rude　and　barbarous　countries；　we　may　easily　conceive　in　what　manner　any　one　person　is；　at　first；　reduced　to　be　the　servant　of　another。　Before　the　manners　of　men　are　civilized；　and　a　regular　government　has　been　established；　persons　of　small　fortune　are　subject　to　great　inconveniencies　from　the　disorder　and　violence　of　the　times；　and　are　frequently　obliged　to　solicit　the　assistance　and　protection　of　some　powerful　neighbour；　by　whom　they　are　entertained　in　the　station　of　vassals　or　military　dependents。　But　those　who；　from　their　idleness；　have　acquired　nothing；　or　who；　by　accident；　have　been　deprived　of　their　possessions；　are　necessarily　exposed　to　much　more　severe　calamities。　They　have　no　room　or　encouragement　for　the　exercise　of　those　beneficial　trades　and　professions；　the　effects　of　luxury　and　refinement；　by　which；　in　a　polished　nation；　a　multitude　of　people　are　enabled　to　live　in　a　comfortable　manner。　In　many　cases；　therefore；　they　are　under　the　necessity　of　serving　some　opulent　person；　who；　upon　account　of　their　labour；　is　willing　to　maintain　them；　and　as　they　are　entirely　dependent　upon　him　for　their　subsistence；　they　are　engaged；　according　to　his　circumstances；　and　according　to　the　qualifications　they　possess；　in　all　the　mean　and　servile　occupations　which　may　be　requisite　for　the　convenience　and　support　of　his　family。　　　　　In　early　ages；　when　neighbouring　tribes　or　nations　are　almost　continually　engaged　in　mutual　hostilities；　it　frequently　happens　that　one　of　the　parties；　is　totally　reduced　under　the　power　of　another。　The　use　that　is　made　of　a　victory；　upon　these　occasions；　is　such　as　might　be　expected　from　a　fierce　and　barbarous　people；　who　have　too　little　experience　or　reflection　to　discover　the　utility　of　carrying　on　the　trade　of　war　with　some　degree　of　humanity。　The　vanquished　are　often　put　to　death；　in　order　to　gratify　a　spirit　of　revenge；　or；　if　they　are　spared；　it　is　only　from　the　consideration　that　their　future　labour　and　service　will　be　of　more　advantage　to　the　conqueror。　As　in　those　times　every　individual　goes　out　to　battle　at　his　own　charges；　so　he　claims　a　proportional　share　of　the　profits　arising　from　the　expedition；　and　of　consequence　obtains　the　absolute　disposal　of　the　captives　whom　he　has　procured　by　his　valour；　or　who；　in　a　division　of　the　booty；　are　bestowed　upon　him　as　the　reward　of　his　merit。　　　　　This　ancient　acquisition　of　servants　by　captivity　gave　rise；　in　subsequent　periods；　to　another　method　of　acquiring　them；　by　the　sentence　of　a　judge。　In　the　primitive　state　of　society；　the　public　was　not　invested　with　sufficient　power　to　punish　the　crimes　that　were　committed；　and　when　a　difference　arose　between　individuals；　the　injured　Party　had　frequently　no　other　way　of　procuring　redress　than　by　making　war　upon　the　offender；　and　reducing　him　into　captivity。　In　more　civilized　ages；　when　the　magistrate　was　enabled　to　restrain　these　disorders；　he　sometimes　afforded　the　same　redress　by　his　own　authority；　and　assigned　the　labour　and　service　of　the　criminal　as　an　indemnification　to　the　sufferer　for　the　loss　he　had　sustained。　　　　　By　these　three　methods；　by　captivity；　by　the　voluntary　submission　of　the　indigent；　or　by　the　sentence　of　a　judge；　many　are　reduced　into　a　state　of　unlimited　subjection；　and　become　the　servants　of　those　who　are　opulent　and　prosperous。　It　may　be　questioned；　in　such　a　case；　how　far　a　person　is　intitled　to　make　use　of　that　power　which　fortune　has　put　into　his　hands。　It　is　difficult　to　ascertain　the　degree　of　authority　which；　from　the　principles　of　justice　and　humanity；　we　are；　in　any　situation；　permitted　to　assume　over　our　fellow…creatures。　But　the　fact　admits　of　no　question；　that　people　have　commonly　been　disposed　to　use　their　power　in　such　a　manner　as　appears　most　conducive　to　their　interest；　and　most　agreeable　to　their　predominant　passions。　It　is　natural　to　suppose　that　the　master　would　let　no　bounds　to　his　prerogative　over　those　unhappy　persons　who；　from　their　circumstances；　were　under　the　necessity　of　yielding　an　implicit　obedience　to　his　commands。　He　forced　them　to　labour　as　much；　and　gave　them　as　little　in　return　for　it　as　possible。　When　he　found　them　negligent　of　their　employment；　he　bestowed　upon　them　such　correction　as　he　thought　proper'。　and；　actuated　by　the　boisterous　dispositions　of　a　savage；　he　was　in　some　cases　provoked　to　chastise　them　with　a　degree　of　severity；　by　which　they　might　even　be　deprived　of　their　life。　When　he　had　no　use　for　their　work；　or　when　a　good　opportunity　was　presented；　he　endeavoured　by　a　sale　to　dispose　of　them　to　the　highest　advantage。　When　he　chose　to　increase　the　number　of　his　servants；　he　sometimes　encouraged　and　directed　their　multiplication；　and　the　same　authority　which　he　exercised　over　the　parents　was　extended　to　their　offspring；　whom　he　had　been　at　the　trouble　of　rearing；　and　who　were　equally　dependent　upon　him　for　their　subsistence。　　　　　To　be　a　servant；　therefore；　in　those　primitive　times；　was　almost　universally　the　same　thing　as　to　be　a　slave。　The　master　assumed　an　unlimited　jurisdiction　over　his　servants；　and　the　privilege　of　selling　them　at　pleasure。　He　gave　them　no　wages　beside　their　maintenance；　and　he　allowed　them　to　have　no　property；　but　claimed　to　his　own　use　whatever；　by　their　labour　or　by　any　other　means；　they　happened　to　acquire。　　　　　Thus　the　practice　of　domestic　slavery　appears　to　have　been　early　established　among　the　nations　of　antiquity；　among　the　Egyptians；　the　Phoenicians；　the　Jews；　the　Babylonians；　the　Persians；　the　Greek；　and　the　Romans。　　　　　The　same　practice　obtains　at　present　among　all　those　tribes　of　barbarians；　in　different　parts　of　the　world；　with　which　we　have　any　correspondence。　　　　　There　are　indeed　but　few　slaves　among　the　greater　part　of　the　savages　of　America；　because；　from　the　situation　of　that　people；　they　have　no　opportunity　of　accumulating　wealth　for　maintaining　any　number　of　servants。　As；　in　ordinary　cases；　they　find　it　burdensome　to　give　subsistence　to　an　enemy　whom　they　have　subdued；　they　are　accustomed　to　indulge　their　natural　ferocity　by　putting　him　to　death；　even　in　cold　blood。　If　ever　they　behave　with　humanity　to　their　captives；　it　is　only　when　being　greatly　reduced　by　the　calamities　of　war；　or　by　uncommon　accidents；　they　are　under　the　immediate　necessity　of　recruiting　their　strength；　and　as　this　rarely　happens；　the　persons　whose　lives　have　been　thus　preserved；　are　not　distinguished　from　the　children　of　the　family　into　which　they　are　brought；　but　are　formally　adopted　into　the　place　of　the　deceased　relations；　whose　loss　they　are　intended　to　supply。（1*）　　　　　The　Tartars；　on　the　other　hand；　who　have　great　possessions　in　herds　and　flocks；　find　no　difficulty　in　supporting　a　number　of　domestics。　For　this　reason　they　commonly　preserve　their　captives；　with　a　view　of　reaping　the　benefit　that　may　arise　from　their　labour；　and　the　servitude　established　among　that　people　disposes　them　to　treat　their　enemies　with　a　degree　of　moderation；　which　otherwise　could　hardly　be　expected　from　their　fierce　and　barbarous　dispositions。　　　　　The　same　observation　may　be　extended　to　the　negroes　upon　the　coast　of　Guinea；　who；　from　their　intercourse　with　the　nations　of　Europe；　derive　yet　greater　advantages　from　sparing　the　lives　of　their　enemies。　At　the　same　time　it　cannot　be　doubted；　that；　as　the　encounters　of　those　barbarians　have　upon　this　account　become　less　bloody；　their　wars　have　been　rendered　more　frequent。　From　the　great　demand　for　slaves　to　supply　the　European　market；　they　have　the　same　motives　to　seize　the　person　of　their　neighbours；　which　may　excite　the　inhabitants　of　other　countries　to　rob　one　another　of　their　property。　Section　II　The　usual　effects　of　opulence　and　civilized　manners；　with　regard　to　the　treatment　of　servants　　　　　These　institutions　and　customs　are　such　as　might　be　expected　from　the　limited　experience；　as　well　as　from　the　rude　manners　of　an　early　age。　By　reducing　his　servants　into　a　state　of　slavery；　the　master　appears；　at　first　sight；　to　reap　the　highest　advantage　from　their　future　labour　and　service。　But　when　a　people　become　civilized；　and　when　they　have　made　considerable　progress　in　commerce　and　manufactures；　one　would　imagine　they　should　entertain　more　liberal　views；　and　be　influenced　by　more　extensive　considerations