a smaller history of greece-第3部分

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Venus）。　　Even　the　gods　took　part　in　the　contest；　encouraging　their　favourite　heroes；　and　sometimes　fighting　by　their　side　or　in　their　stead。

It　was　not　till　the　tenth　year　of　the　war　that　Troy　yielded　to　the　inevitable　decree　of　fate；　and　it　is　this　year　which　forms　the　subject　of　the　Iliad。　　Achilles；　offended　by　Agamemnon；　abstains　from　the　war；　and　in　his　absence　the　Greeks　are　no　match　for　Hector。　　The　Trojans　drive　them　back　into　their　camp；　and　are　already　setting　fire　to　their　ships；　when　Achilles　gives　his　armour　to　his　friend　Patroclus；　and　allows　him　to　charge　at　the　head　of　the　Myrmidons。　　Patroclus　repulses　the　Trojans　from　the　ships；　but　the　god　Apollo　is　against　him；　and　he　falls　under　the　spear　of　Hector。　　Desire　to　avenge　the　death　of　his　friend　proves　more　powerful　in　the　breast　of　Achilles　than　anger　against　Agamemnon。　　He　appears　again　in　the　field　in　new　and　gorgeous　armour；　forged　for　him　by　the　god　Hephrastus　（Vulcan）　at　the　prayer　of　Thetis。　　The　Trojans　fly　before　him；　and；　although　Achilles　is　aware　that　his　own　death　must　speedily　follow　that　of　the　Trojan　hero；　he　slays　Hector　in　single　combat。

The　Iliad　closes　with　the　burial　of　Hector。　　The　death　of　Achilles　and　the　capture　of　Troy　were　related　in　later　poems。　The　hero　of　so　many　achievements　perishes　by　an　arrow　shot　by　the　unwarlike　Paris；　but　directed　by　the　hand　of　Apollo。　　The　noblest　combatants　had　now　fallen　on　either　side；　and　force　of　arms　had　proved　unable　to　accomplish　what　stratagem　at　length　effects。　　It　is　Ulysses　who　now　steps　into　the　foreground　and　becomes　the　real　conqueror　of　Troy。　　By　his　advice　a　wooden　horse　is　built；　in　whose　inside　he　and　other　heroes　conceal　themselves。　　The　infatuated　Trojans　admit　the　horse　within　their　walls。　　In　the　dead　of　night　the　Greeks　rush　out　and　open　the　gates　to　their　comrades。　　Troy　is　delivered　over　to　the　sword；　and　its　glory　sinks　in　ashes。　　The　fall　of　Troy　is　placed　in　the　year　1184　B。C。

The　return　of　the　Grecian　leaders　from　Troy　forms　another　series　of　poetical　legends。　　Several　meet　with　tragical　ends。　　Agamemnon　is　murdered　on　his　arrival　at　Mycenae；　by　his　wife　Clytaemnestra　and　her　paramour　AEgisthus。　　But　of　these　wanderings　the　most　celebrated　and　interesting　are　those　of　Ulysses；　which　form　the　subject　of　the　Odyssey。　　After　twenty　years'　absence　he　arrives　at　length　in　Ithaca；　where　he　slays　the　numerous　suitors　who　devoured　his　substance　and　contended　for　the　hand　of　his　wife　Penelope。

The　Homeric　poems　must　not　be　regarded　as　a　record　of　historical　persons　and　events；　but；　at　the　same　time；　they　present　a　valuable　picture　of　the　institutions　and　manners　of　the　earliest　known　state　of　Grecian　society。

In　the　Heroic　age　Greece　was　already　divided　into　a　number　of　independent　states；　each　governed　by　its　own　king。　　The　authority　of　the　king　was　not　limited　by　any　laws；　his　power　resembled　that　of　the　patriarchs　in　the　Old　Testament；　and　for　the　exercise　of　it　he　was　responsible　only　to　Zeus；　and　not　to　his　people。　　But　though　the　king　was　not　restrained　in　the　exercise　of　his　power　by　any　positive　laws；　his　authority　was　practically　limited　by　the　BOULE；　or　council　of　chiefs；　and　the　Agora；　or　general　assembly　of　freemen。　　These　two　bodies；　of　little　account　in　the　Heroic　age；　became　in　the　Republican　age　the　sole　depositories　of　political　power。

The　Greeks　in　the　Heroic　age　were　divided　into　the　three　classes　of　nobles；　common　freemen；　and　slaves。　　The　nobles　were　raised　far　above　the　rest　of　the　community　in　honour；　power；　and　wealth。　They　were　distinguished　by　their　warlike　prowess；　their　large　estates；　and　their　numerous　slaves。　　The　condition　of　the　general　mass　of　freemen　is　rarely　mentioned。　　They　possessed　portions　of　land　as　their　own　property；　which　they　cultivated　themselves；　but　there　was　another　class　of　poor　freemen；　called　Thetes；　who　had　no　land　of　their　own；　and　who　worked　for　hire　on　the　estates　of　others。　　Slavery　was　not　so　prevalent　in　the　Heroic　age　as　at　a　later　time；　and　appears　in　a　less　odious　aspect。　　The　nobles　alone　possessed　slaves；　and　they　treated　them　with　a　degree　of　kindness　which　frequently　secured　for　the　masters　their　affectionate　attachment。

Society　was　marked　by　simplicity　of　manners。　　The　kings　and　nobles　did　not　consider　it　derogatory　to　their　dignity　to　acquire　skill　in　the　manual　arts。　　Ulysses　is　represented　as　building　his　own　bed…chamber　and　constructing　his　own　raft；　and　he　boasts　of　being　an　excellent　mower　and　ploughman。　　Like　Esau；　who　made　savoury　meat　for　his　father　Isaac；　the　Heroic　chiefs　prepared　their　own　meals　and　prided　themselves　on　their　skill　in　cookery。　Kings　and　private　persons　partook　of　the　same　food；　which　was　of　the　simplest　kind。　　Beef；　mutton；　and　goat's　flesh　were　the　ordinary　meats；　and　cheese；　flour；　and　sometimes　fruits；　also　formed　part　of　the　banquet；　wine　was　drunk　diluted　with　water；　and　the　entertainments　were　never　disgraced　by　intemperance；　like　those　of　our　northern　ancestors。　　The　enjoyment　of　the　banquet　was　heightened　by　the　song　and　the　dance；　and　the　chiefs　took　more　delight　in　the　lays　of　the　minstrel　than　in　the　exciting　influence　of　the　wine。

The　wives　and　daughters　of　the　chiefs；　in　like　manner；　did　not　deem　it　beneath　them　to　discharge　various　duties　which　were　afterwards　regarded　as　menial。　　Not　only　do　we　find　them　constantly　employed　in　weaving；　spinning　and　embroidery；　but　like　the　daughters　of　the　patriarchs　they　fetch　water　from　the　well　and　assist　their　slaves　in　washing　garments　in　the　river。

Even　at　this　early　age　the　Greeks　had　made　considerable　advances　in　civilization。　　They　were　collected　in　fortified　towns；　which　were　surrounded　by　walls　and　adorned　with　palaces　and　temples。　The　massive　ruins　of　Mycenae　and　the　sculptured　lions　on　the　gate　of　this　city　belong　to　the　Heroic　age；　and　still　excite　the　wonder　of　the　beholder。　　Commerce；　however；　was　little　cultivated；　and　was　not　much　esteemed。　　It　was　deemed　more　honourable　for　a　man　to　enrich　himself　by　robbery　and　piracy　than　by　the　arts　of　peace。　　Coined　money　is　not　mentioned　in　the　poems　of　Homer。　　Whether　the　Greeks　were　acquainted　at　this　early　period　with　the　art　of　writing　is　a　question　which　has　given　rise　to　much　dispute；　and　must　remain　undetermined；　but　poetry　was　cultivated　with　success；　though　yet　confined　to　epic　strains；　or　the　narration　of　the　exploits　and　adventures　of　the　Heroic　chiefs。　　The　bard　sung　his　own　song；　and　was　always　received　with　welcome　and　honour　in　the　palaces　of　the　nobles。

In　the　battle；　as　depicted　by　Homer；　the　chiefs　are　the　only　important　combatants；　while　the　people　are　an　almost　useless　mass；　frequently　put　to　rout　by　the　prowess　of　a　single　hero。　The　chief　is　mounted　in　a　war　chariot；　and　stands　by　the　side　of　his　charioteer；　who　is　frequently　a　friend。



CHAPTER　III。

GENERAL　SURVEY　OF　THE　GREEK　PEOPLENATIONAL　INSTITUTIONS。

The　Greeks；　as　we　have　already　seen；　were　divided　into　many　independent　communities；　but　several　causes　bound　them　together　as　one　people。　　Of　these　the　most　important　were　community　of　blood　and　languagecommunity　of　religious　rites　and　festivals　and　community　of　manners　and　character。

All　the　Greeks　were　descended　from　the　same　ancestor　and　spoke　the　same　language。　　They　all　described　men　and　cities　which　were　not　Grecian　by　the　term　BARBARIAN。　　This　word　has　passed　into　our　own　language；　but　with　a　very　different　idea；　for　the　Greeks　applied　it　indiscriminately　to　every　foreigner；　to　the　civilized　inhabitants　of　Egypt　and　Persia；　as　well　as　to　the　rude　tribes　of　Scythia　and　Gaul。

The　second　bond　of　union　was　a　community　of　religious　rites　and　festivals。　　From　the　earliest　times　the　Greeks　appear　to　have　worshipped　the　same　gods；　but　originally　there　were　no　religious　meetings　common　to　the　whole　nation。　　Such　meetings　were　of　gradual　growth；　being　formed　by　a　number　of　neighbouring　towns；　which　entered　into　an　association　for　the　periodical　celebration　of　certain　religious　rites。　　Of　these　the　most　celebrated　was　the　AMPHICTYONIC　COUNCIL。　　It　acquired　its　superiority　over　other　similar　associations　by　the　wealth　and　grandeur　of　the　Delphian　temple；　of　which　it　was　the　appointed　guardian。　　It　held　two　meetings　every　year；　one　in　the　spring　at　the　temple　of　Apollo　at　Delphi；　and　the　other　in　the　autumn　at　the　temple　of　Demeter　（Ceres）　at　Thermopylae。　　Its　members；　who　were　called　the　Amphictyons；　consisted　of　sacred　deputies　sent　from　twelve　tribes；　each　of　which　contained　several　independent　cities　or　states。　　But　the　Council　was　never　considered　as　a　national　congress；　whose　duty　it　was　to　protect　and　defend　the　common　interests　of　Greece；　and　it　was　only　when　the　rights　of　the　Delphian　god　had　been　violated　that　it　invoked　the　aid　of　the　various　members　of　the　league。

The　Olympic　Games　were　of　greater　efficacy　than　the　amphictyonic　council　in　promoting　a　spirit　of　union　among　the　various　branches　of　the　Greek　race；　and　in　keeping　alive　a　feeling　of　their　common　origin。　　They　were　open　to　all　persons　who　could　prove　their　Hellenic　blood；　and　were　frequented　by　spectators　from　all　parts　of　the　Grecian　world。　　They　were　celebrated　at　Olympia；　on　the　banks　of　the　Alpheus；　in　the　territory　of　Elis。　　The　origin　of　the　festival　is