the spirit of laws-第101部分

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ys　the　most　exposed　to　the　projects　of　ministers；　and　always　in　their　eye；　and　under　their　immediate　inspection；　the　state　is　obliged　to　give　them　a　singular　protection；　that　the　part　which　is　indebted　may　never　have　the　least　advantage　over　that　which　is　the　creditor。

19。　Of　lending　upon　Interest。　Specie　is　the　sign　of　value。　It　is　evident　that　he　who　has　occasion　for　this　sign　ought　to　pay　for　the　use　of　it；　as　well　as　for　everything　else　that　he　has　occasion　for。　All　the　difference　is　that　other　things　may　be　either　hired　or　bought；　while　money；　which　is　the　price　of　things；　can　only　be　hired；　and　not　bought。＇33＇

To　lend　money　without　interest　is　certainly　an　action　laudable　and　extremely　good；　but　it　is　obvious　that　it　is　only　a　counsel　of　religion；　and　not　a　civil　law。

In　order　that　trade　may　be　successfully　carried　on；　it　is　necessary　that　a　price　be　fixed　on　the　use　of　specie；　but　this　should　be　very　inconsiderable。　If　it　be　too　high；　the　merchant　who　sees　that　it　will　cost　him　more　in　interest　than　he　can　gain　by　commerce　will　undertake　nothing；　if　there　is　no　consideration　to　be　paid　for　the　use　of　specie；　nobody　will　lend　it；　and　here　too　the　merchant　will　undertake　nothing。

I　am　mistaken　when　I　say　nobody　will　lend；　the　affairs　of　society　will　ever　make　it　necessary。　Usury　will　be　established；　but　with　all　the　disorders　with　which　it　has　been　constantly　attended。

The　laws　of　Mahomet　confound　usury　with　lending　upon　interest。　Usury　increases　in　Mahometan　countries　in　proportion　to　the　severity　of　the　prohibition。　The　lender　indemnifies　himself　for　the　danger　he　undergoes　of　suffering　the　penalty。

In　those　eastern　countries；　the　greater　part　of　the　people　are　secure　in　nothing；　there　is　hardly　any　proportion　between　the　actual　possession　of　a　sum　and　the　hopes　of　receiving　it　again　after　having　lent　it：　usury；　then；　must　be　raised　in　proportion　to　the　danger　of　insolvency。

20。　Of　Maritime　Usury。　The　greatness　of　maritime　usury　is　founded　on　two　things：　the　danger　of　the　sea；　which　makes　it　proper　that　those　who　expose　their　specie　should　not　do　it　without　considerable　advantage；　and　the　ease　with　which　the　borrower；　by　means　of　commerce；　speedily　accomplishes　a　variety　of　great　affairs。　But　usury；　with　respect　to　landmen；　not　being　founded　on　either　of　these　two　reasons；　is　either　prohibited　by　the　legislators；　or；　what　is　more　rational；　reduced　to　proper　bounds。

21。　Of　Lending　by　Contract；　and　the　State　of　Usury　among　the　Romans。　Besides　the　loans　made　for　the　advantage　of　commerce；　there　is　still　a　kind　of　lending　by　a　civil　contract；　whence　results　interest　or　usury。

As　the　people　of　Rome　increased　every　day　in　power；　the　magistrates　sought　to　insinuate　themselves　in　their　favour　by　enacting　such　laws　as　were　most　agreeable　to　them。　They　retrenched　capitals；　they　first　lowered；　and　at　length　prohibited；　interest；　they　took　away　the　power　of　confining　the　debtor's　body；　in　fine；　the　abolition　of　debts　was　contended　for　whenever　a　tribune　was　disposed　to　render　himself　popular。

These　continual　changes；　whether　made　by　the　laws　or　by　the　plebiscita；　naturalised　usury　at　Rome；　for　the　creditors；　seeing　the　people　their　debtor；　their　legislator；　and　their　judge；　had　no　longer　any　confidence　in　their　agreements：　the　people；　like　a　debtor　who　has　lost　his　credit；　could　only　tempt　them　to　lend　by　allowing　an　exorbitant　interest；　especially　as　the　laws　applied　a　remedy　to　the　evil　only　from　time　to　time；　while　the　complaints　of　the　people　were　continual；　and　constantly　intimidated　the　creditors。　This　was　the　cause　that　all　honest　means　of　borrowing　and　lending　were　abolished　at　Rome；　and　that　the　most　monstrous　usury　established　itself　in　that　city；　notwithstanding　the　strict　prohibition　and　severity　of　the　law。＇34＇　This　evil　was　a　consequence　of　the　severity　of　the　laws　against　usury。　Laws　excessively　good　are　the　source　of　excessive　evil。　The　borrower　found　himself　under　the　necessity　of　paying　for　the　interest　of　the　money；　and　for　the　danger　the　creditor　underwent　of　suffering　the　penalty　of　the　law。

22。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　primitive　Romans　had　not　any　laws　to　regulate　the　rate　of　usury。＇35＇　In　the　contests　which　arose　on　this　subject　between　the　plebeians　and　the　patricians；　even　in　the　sedition　on　the　Mons　Sacer；　nothing　was　alleged；　on　the　one　hand；　but　justice；　and　on　the　other；　the　severity　of　contracts。＇36＇

They　then　only　followed　private　agreements；　which；　I　believe；　were　most　commonly　at　twelve　per　cent　per　annum。　My　reason　is；　that　in　the　ancient　language　of　the　Romans；　interest　at　six　per　cent　was　called　half…usury；　and　interest　at　three　per　cent；　quarter…usury。＇37＇　Total　usury　must；　therefore；　have　been　interest　at　twelve　per　cent。

But　if　it　be　asked　how　such　great　interest　could　be　established　among　a　people　almost　without　commerce；　I　answer　that　this　people；　being　very　often　obliged　to　go　to　war　without　pay；　were　under　a　frequent　necessity　of　borrowing：　and　as　they　incessantly　made　happy　expeditions；　they　were　commonly　well　able　to　pay。　This　is　visible　from　the　recital　of　the　contests　which　arose　on　this　subject；　they　did　not　then　disagree　concerning　the　avarice　of　creditors；　but　said　that　those　who　complained　might　have　been　able　to　pay；　had　they　lived　in　a　more　regular　manner。＇38＇

They　then　made　laws　which　had　only　an　influence　on　the　present　situation　of　affairs：　they　ordained；　for　instance；　that　those　who　enrolled　themselves　for　the　war　they　were　engaged　in　should　not　be　molested　by　their　creditors；　that　those　who　were　in　prison　should　be　set　at　liberty；　that　the　most　indigent　should　be　sent　into　the　colonies；　and　sometimes　they　opened　the　public　treasury。　The　people；　being　eased　of　their　present　burdens；　became　appeased；　and　as　they　required　nothing　for　the　future；　the　senate　was　far　from　providing　against　it。

At　the　time　when　the　senate　maintained　the　cause　of　usury　with　so　much　constancy；　the　Romans　were　distinguished　by　an　extreme　love　of　frugality；　poverty；　and　moderation：　but　the　constitution　was　such　that　the　principal　citizens　alone　supported　all　the　expenses　of　government；　while　the　common　people　paid　nothing。　How；　then；　was　it　possible　to　deprive　the　former　of　the　liberty　of　pursuing　their　debtors；　and　at　the　same　time　to　oblige　them　to　execute　their　offices；　and　to　support　the　republic　amidst　its　most　pressing　necessities？

Tacitus　says　that　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables　fixed　the　interest　at　one　per　cent。＇39＇　It　is　evident　that　he　was　mistaken；　and　that　he　took　another　law；　of　which　I　am　going　to　speak；　for　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables。　If　this　had　been　regulated　in　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables；　why　did　they　not　make　use　of　its　authority　in　the　disputes　which　afterwards　arose　between　the　creditors　and　debtors？　We　find　no　vestige　of　this　law　upon　lending　at　interest；　and　let　us　have　ever　so　little　knowledge　of　the　history　of　Rome；　we　shall　see　that　a　law　like　this　could　not　be　the　work　of　the　decemvirs。

The　Licinian　law；　made　eighty…five　years　after　that　of　the　Twelve　Tables；＇40＇　was　one　of　those　temporary　regulations　of　which　we　have　spoken。　It　ordained　that　what　had　been　paid　for　interest　should　be　deducted　from　the　principal；　and　the　rest　discharged　by　three　equal　payments。

In　the　year　of　Rome　398；　the　tribunes　Duellius　and　Menenius　caused　a　law　to　be　passed　which　reduced　the　interest　to　one　per　cent　per　annum。＇41＇　it　is　this　law　which　Tacitus　confounds　with　that　of　the　Twelve　Tables；＇42＇　and　this　was　the　first　ever　made　by　the　Romans　to　fix　the　rate　of　interest。　Ten　years　after；＇43＇　this　usury　was　reduced　one…half；＇44＇　and　in　the　end　entirely　abolished；＇45＇　and　if　we　may　believe　some　authors　whom　Livy　had　read；　this　was　under　the　consulate　of　C。　Martius　Rutilius　and　Q。　Servilius；　in　the　year　of　Rome　413。＇46＇

It　fared　with　this　law　as　with　all　those　in　which　the　legislator　carries　things　to　excess：　an　infinite　number　of　ways　were　found　to　elude　it。　They　enacted；　therefore；　many　others　to　confirm；　correct；　and　temper　it。　Sometimes　they　quitted　the　laws　to　follow　the　common　practice；　at　others；　the　common　practice　to　follow　the　laws；　but　in　this　case；　custom　easily　prevailed。＇47＇　When　a　man　wanted　to　borrow；　he　found　an　obstacle　in　the　very　law　made　in　his　favour；　this　law　must　be　evaded　by　the　person　it　was　made　to　succour；　and　by　the　person　condemned。　Sempronius　Asellus；　the　pr？tor；　having　permitted　the　debtors　to　act　in　conformity　to　the　laws；＇48＇　was　slain　by　the　creditors　for　attempting　to　revive　the　memory　of　a　severity　that　could　no　longer　be　supported。＇49＇

I　quit　the　city；　in　order　to　cast　an　eye　on　the　provinces。

I　have　somewhere　else　observed　that　the　Roman　provinces　were　exhausted　by　a　severe　and　arbitrary　government。＇50＇　But　this　is　not　all；　they　were　also　ruined　by　a　most　shocking　usury。

Cicero　takes　notice　that　the　inhabitants　of　Salamis　wanted　to　borrow　a　sum　of　money　at　Rome；　but　could　not；　because　of　the　Gabinian　law。＇51＇　We　must；　therefore；　inquire　into　the　nature　of　this　law。

As　soon　as　lending　upon　interest　was　forbidden　at　Rome；　they　contrived　all　sort　of　means　to　elude　the　law；＇52＇　and　as　their　allies；＇53＇　and　the　Latins；　were　not　subject　to　the　civil　laws　of　the　Romans；　they　employed　a　Latin；　or　an　ally