the spirit of laws-第144部分

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an　is　incapable　to　plead；　because　he　cannot　see　the　ornaments　of　the　magistracy。＇40＇　So　bad　a　reason　must　have　been　given　on　purpose；　when　such　a　number　of　good　reasons　were　at　hand。

Paul；　the　jurist；　says＇41＇　that　a　child　grows　perfect　in　the　seventh　month；　and　that　the　ratio　of　Pythagoras'　numbers　seems　to　prove　it。　It　is　very　extraordinary　that　they　should　judge　of　those　things　by　the　ratio　of　Pythagoras'　numbers。

Some　French　lawyers　have　asserted　that　when　the　king　made　an　acquisition　of　a　new　country；　the　churches　became　subject　to　the　Regale；　because　the　king's　crown　is　round。　I　shall　not　examine　here　into　the　king's　rights；　or　whether　in　this　case　the　reason　of　the　civil　or　ecclesiastic　law　ought　to　submit　to　that　of　the　law　of　politics；　I　shall　only　say　that　those　august　rights　ought　to　be　defended　by　grave　maxims。　Was　there　ever　such　a　thing　known　as　the　real　rights　of　a　dignity　founded　on　the　figure　of　that　dignity's　sign？

Davila　says＇42＇　that　Charles　IX　was　declared　of　age　in　the　parliament　of　Rouen　at　the　commencement　of　his　fourteenth　year；　because　the　laws　require　every　moment　of　the　time　to　be　reckoned；　in　cases　relating　to　the　restitution　and　administration　of　a　ward's　estate；　whereas　it　considers　the　year　commenced　as　a　year　complete；　when　the　case　is　concerning　the　acquisition　of　honours。　I　am　very　far　from　censuring　a　regulation　which　has　been　hitherto　attended　with　no　inconvenience；　I　shall　only　notice　that　the　reason　alleged　is　not　the　true　one；　it　is　false；　that　the　government　of　a　nation　is　only　an　honour。

In　point　of　presumption；　that　of　the　law　is　far　preferable　to　that　of　the　man。　The　French　law　considers　every　act　of　a　merchant　during　the　ten　days　preceding　his　bankruptcy　as　fraudulent：＇43＇　this　is　the　presumption　of　the　law。　The　Roman　law　inflicted　punishments　on　the　husband　who　kept　his　wife　after　she　had　been　guilty　of　adultery；　unless　he　was　induced　to　do　it　through　fear　of　the　event　of　a　lawsuit；　or　through　contempt　of　his　own　shame；　this　is　the　presumption　of　the　man。　The　judge　must　have　presumed　the　motives　of　the　husband's　conduct；　and　must　have　determined　a　very　obscure　and　ambiguous　point；　when　the　law　presumes；　it　gives　a　fixed　rule　to　the　judge。

Plato's　law；＇44＇　as　I　have　observed　already；　required　that　a　punishment　should　be　inflicted　on　the　person　who　killed　himself　not　with　a　design　of　avoiding　shame；　but　through　pusillanimity。　This　law　was　so　far　defective　that　in　the　only　case　in　which　it　was　impossible　to　draw　from　the　criminal　an　acknowledgment　of　the　motive　upon　which　he　had　acted；　it　required　the　judge　to　determine　concerning　these　motives。

As　useless　laws　debilitate　such　as　are　necessary；　so　those　that　may　be　easily　eluded　weaken　the　legislation。　Every　law　ought　to　have　its　effect；　and　no　one　should　be　suffered　to　deviate　from　it　by　a　particular　exception。

The　Falcidian　law　ordained　among　the　Romans；　that　the　heir　should　always　have　the　fourth　part　of　the　inheritance；　another　law　suffered　the　testator　to　prohibit　the　heir　from　retaining　this　fourth　part。＇45＇　This　is　making　a　jest　of　the　laws。　The　Falcidian　law　became　useless：　for　if　the　testator　had　a　mind　to　favour　his　heir；　the　latter　had　no　need　of　the　Falcidian　law；　and　if　he　did　not　intend　to　favour　him；　he　forbad　him　to　make　use　of　it。

Care　should　be　taken　that　the　laws　be　worded　in　such　a　manner　as　not　to　be　contrary　to　the　very　nature　of　things。　In　the　proscription　of　the　Prince　of　Orange；　Philip　II　promises　to　any　man　that　will　kill　the　prince　to　give　him；　or　his　heirs；　five…and…twenty　thousand　crowns；　together　with　the　title　of　nobility；　and　this　upon　the　word　of　a　king；　and　as　a　servant　of　God。　To　promise　nobility　for　such　an　action！　to　ordain　such　an　action　in　the　quality　of　a　servant　of　God！　This　is　equally　subversive　of　the　ideas　of　honour；　morality；　and　religion。

There　very　seldom　happens　to　be　a　necessity　of　prohibiting　a　thing　which　is　not　bad　under　pretence　of　some　imaginary　perfection。

There　ought　to　be　a　certain　simplicity　and　candour　in　the　laws；　made　to　punish　the　iniquity　of　men；　they　themselves　should　be　clad　with　the　robes　of　innocence。　We　find　in　the　law　of　the　Visigoths＇46＇　that　ridiculous　request；　by　which　the　Jews　were　obliged　to　eat　everything　dressed　with　pork；　provided　they　did　not　eat　the　pork　itself。　This　was　a　very　great　cruelty：　they　were　obliged　to　submit　to　a　law　contrary　to　their　own；　and　they　were　obliged　to　retain　nothing　more　of　their　own　than　what　might　serve　as　a　mark　to　distinguish　them。

17。　A　bad　Method　of　giving　Laws。　The　Roman　Emperors　manifested　their　will；　like　our　princes；　by　decrees　and　edicts；　but　they　permitted；　which　our　princes　do　not；　both　the　judges　and　private　people　to　interrogate　them　by　letters　in　their　several　differences；　and　their　answers　were　called　rescripts。　The　decretals　of　the　popes　are　rescripts；　strictly　speaking。　It　is　plain　that　this　is　a　bad　method　of　legislation。　Those　who　thus　apply　for　laws　are　improper　guides　to　the　legislator；　the　facts　are　always　wrongly　stated。　Julius　Capitolinus　says＇47＇　that　Trajan　often　refused　to　give　this　kind　of　rescripts；　lest　a　single　decision；　and　frequently　a　particular　favour；　should　be　extended　to　all　cases。　Macrinus　had　resolved　to　abolish　all　those　rescripts；＇48＇　he　could　not　bear　that　the　answers　of　Commodus；　Caracalla；　and　all　those　other　ignorant　princes；　should　be　considered　as　laws。　Justinian　thought　otherwise；　and　he　filled　his　compilation　with　them。

I　would　advise　those　who　read　the　Roman　laws　to　distinguish　carefully　between　this　sort　of　hypothesis；　and　the　Senatus　Consulta；　the　Plebiscita；　the　general　constitutions　of　the　emperors；　and　all　the　laws　founded　on　the　nature　of　things；　on　the　frailty　of　women；　the　weakness　of　minors；　and　the　public　utility。

18。　Of　the　Ideas　of　Uniformity。　There　are　certain　ideas　of　uniformity；　which　sometimes　strike　great　geniuses　（for　they　even　affected　Charlemagne）；　but　infallibly　make　an　impression　on　little　souls。　They　discover　therein　a　kind　of　perfection；　which　they　recognize　because　it　is　impossible　for　them　not　to　see　it；　the　same　authorized　weights；　the　same　measures　in　trade；　the　same　laws　in　the　state；　the　same　religion　in　all　its　parts。　But　is　this　always　right　and　without　exception？　Is　the　evil　of　changing　constantly　less　than　that　of　suffering？　And　does　not　a　greatness　of　genius　consist　rather　in　distinguishing　between　those　cases　in　which　uniformity　is　requisite；　and　those　in　which　there　is　a　necessity　for　differences？　In　China　the　Chinese　are　governed　by　the　Chinese　ceremonial　and　the　Tartars　by　theirs；　and　yet　there　is　no　nation　in　the　world　that　aims　so　much　at　tranquillity。　If　the　people　observe　the　laws；　what　signifies　it　whether　these　laws　are　the　same？

19。　Of　Legislators。　Aristotle　wanted　to　indulge　sometimes　his　jealousy　against　Plato；　and　sometimes　his　passion　for　Alexander。　Plato　was　incensed　against　the　tyranny　of　the　people　of　Athens。　Machiavel　was　full　of　his　idol；　the　Duke　of　Valentinois。　Sir　Thomas　More；　who　spoke　rather　of　what　he　had　read　than　of　what　he　thought；　wanted　to　govern　all　states　with　the　simplicity　of　a　Greek　city。＇49＇　Harrington　was　full　of　the　idea　of　his　favourite　republic　of　England；　while　a　crowd　of　writers　saw　nothing　but　confusion　where　monarchy　is　abolished。　The　laws　always　conform　to　the　passions　and　prejudices　of　the　legislator；　sometimes　the　latter　pass　through；　and　only　tincture　them；　sometimes　they　remain；　and　are　incorporated　with　them。

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1。　Aristotle；　Politics；　iv。　11。

2。　Book　xx。　1。

3。　Cecilius　says　that　he　never　saw　nor　read　of　an　instance　in　which　this　punishment　had　been　inflicted；　but　it　is　likely　that　no　such　punishment　was　ever　established：　the　opinion　of　some　civilians；　that　the　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables　meant　only　the　division　of　the　money　arising　from　the　sale　of　the　debtor；　seems　very　probable。

4。　De　Falsa　legatione。

5。　Dio；　xli。

6。　Aristotle；　Politics；　v。　13。

7。　Plutarch；　Dionysius。

8。　See　xxvi。　17；　p。　223；　above。

9。　When　the　inheritance　was　too　much　encumbered　they　eluded　the　pontifical　law　by　certain　sales；　whence　come　the　words　sine　sacris　h？reditas。

10。　Laws　ix。

11。　Tacitus；　Annals；　vi。　29。

12。　Rescript　of　the　Emperor　Pius　in　Leg。　3；　§§　1；　2；　ff。　de　bonis　eorum　qui　ante　sententiam　mortem　sibi　consciverunt。

13。　Leg。　18；　ff。　de　in　fus　vocando。

14。　See　the　Law　of　the　Twelve　Tables。

15。　Rapit　in　jus。　　Horace；　Sat。；　i。　9。　Hence　they　could　not　summon　those　to　whom　a　particular　respect　was　due。

16。　See　Leg。　18；　ff。　de　in　jus　vocando。

17。　By　the　ancient　French　law；　witnesses　were　heard　on　both　sides；　hence　we　find　in　the　Institutions　of　St。　Louis；　i。　7；　that　there　was　only　a　pecuniary　punishment　against　false　witnesses。

18。　Leg。　1；　ff。　de　receptatoribus。

19。　Ibid。

20。　See　what　Favorinus　says　in　Aulus　Gellius；　xx。　1。

21。　Compare　what　Plutarch　says　in　the　Lycurgus　with　the　laws　of　the　Digest；　title　De　furtis；　and　the　Institutes；　iv；　tit。　1；　§§　1；　2；　3。

22。　Laws；　i。

23。　Syrian。；　in　Hermog。

24。　The　Cornelian　law　De　Sicariis；　Institutes；　iv；　tit。　3；　de　lege　Aquilia；　§　7。

25。　See　Leg。　4；　ff。　ad　leg。　Aquil。

26。　Ibid。；　see　the　decree　of　Tassillon　added　to　the　law　of　the　Bavarians；　de　popularib。　Legib。　art