the spirit of laws-第148部分

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　express　terms　that　it　was　the　ancient　custom　for　freemen　to　perform　military　service；　and　to　furnish　likewise　the　horses　and　carriages　above…mentioned；　duties　particular　to　themselves；　and　from　which　those　who　possessed　the　fiefs　were　exempt；　as　I　shall　prove　hereafter。

This　is　not　all；　there　was　a　regulation　which　hardly　permitted　the　imposing　of　taxes　on　those　freemen。＇55＇　He　who　had　four　manors　was　obliged　to　march　against　the　enemy：＇56＇　he　who　had　but　three　was　joined　with　a　freeman　that　had　only　one；　the　latter　bore　the　fourth　part　of　the　other's　charges；　and　stayed　at　home。　In　like　manner；　they　joined　two　freemen　who　had　each　two　manors；　he　who　went　to　the　army　had　half　his　charges　borne　by　him　who　stayed　at　home。

Again；　we　have　an　infinite　number　of　charters；　in　which　the　privileges　of　fiefs　are　granted　to　lands　or　districts　possessed　by　freemen；　and　of　which　I　shall　make　further　mention　hereafter。＇57＇　These　lands　are　exempted　from　all　the　duties　or　services　which　were　required　of　them　by　the　counts；　and　by　the　rest　of　the　king's　officers；　and　as　all　these　services　are　particularly　enumerated　without　making　any　mention　of　taxes；　it　is　manifest　that　no　taxes　were　imposed　upon　them。

It　was　very　natural　that　the　Roman　system　of　taxation　should　of　itself　fall　out　of　use　in　the　monarchy　of　the　Franks；　it　was　a　most　complicated　device；　far　above　the　conception；　and　wide　from　the　plan　of　those　simple　people。　Were　the　Tartars　to　overrun　Europe；　we　should　find　it　very　difficult　to　make　them　comprehend　what　is　meant　by　our　financiers。

The　anonymous　author　of　the　life　of　Louis　the　Debonnaire；＇58＇　speaking　of　the　counts　and　other　officers　of　the　nation　of　the　Franks；　whom　Charlemagne　established　in　Aquitania；　says；　that　he　entrusted　them　with　the　care　of　defending　the　frontiers；　as　also　with　the　military　power　and　the　direction　of　the　demesnes　belonging　to　the　crown。　This　shows　the　state　of　the　royal　revenues　under　the　second　race。　The　prince　had　kept　his　demesnes　in　his　own　hands；　and　employed　his　bondmen　in　improving　them。　But　the　indictions；　the　capitations　and　other　imposts　raised　at　the　time　of　the　emperors　on　the　persons　or　goods　of　freemen　had　been　changed　into　an　obligation　of　defending　the　frontiers　and　marching　against　the　enemy。

In　the　same　history；＇59＇　we　find　that　Louis　the　Debonnaire；　having　been　to　wait　upon　his　father　in　Germany；　this　prince　asked　him；　why　he；　who　was　a　crowned　head；　came　to　be　so　poor：　to　which　Louis　made　answer　that　he　was　only　a　nominal　king；　and　that　the　great　lords　were　possessed　of　almost　all　his　demesnes；　that　Charlemagne；　being　apprehensive　lest　this　young　prince　should　forfeit　their　affection；　if　he　attempted　himself　to　resume　what　he　had　inconsiderately　granted；　appointed　commissaries　to　restore　things　to　their　former　situation。

The　bishops；　writing＇60＇　to　Louis；　brother　of　Charles　the　Bald；　used　these　words：　〃Take　care　of　your　lands；　that　you　may　not　be　obliged　to　travel　continually　by　the　houses　of　the　clergy；　and　to　tire　their　bondmen　with　carriages。　Manage　your　affairs；〃　continue　they；　〃in　such　a　manner　that　you　may　have　enough　to　live　upon；　and　to　receive　embassies。〃　It　is　evident　that　the　king's　revenues　in　those　days　consisted　of　their　demesnes。＇61＇

14。　Of　what　they　called　Census。　After　the　Barbarians　had　quitted　their　own　country；　they　were　desirous　of　reducing　their　usages　into　writing；　but　as　they　found　difficulty　in　writing　German　words　with　Roman　letters；　they　published　these　laws　in　Latin。

In　the　confusion　and　rapidity　of　the　conquest；　most　things　changed　their　nature；　in　order；　however；　to　express　them；　they　were　obliged　to　make　use　of　such　old　Latin　words　as　were　most　analogous　to　the　new　usages。　Thus；　whatever　was　likely　to　revive　the　idea　of　the　ancient　census　of　the　Romans　they　called　by　the　name　of　census　tributum；＇62＇　and　when　things　had　no　relation　at　all　to　the　Roman　census；　they　expressed；　as　well　as　they　could；　the　German　words　by　Roman　letters；　thus　they　formed　the　word　fredum；　on　which　I　shall　have　occasion　to　descant　in　the　following　chapters。

The　words　census　and　tributum　having　been　employed　in　an　arbitrary　manner；　this　has　thrown　some　obscurity　on　the　signification　in　which　these　words　were　used　under　our　princes　of　the　first　and　second　race。　And　modern　authors＇63＇　who　have　adopted　particular　systems；　having　found　these　words　in　the　writings　of　those　days；　imagined　that　what　was　then　called　census　was　exactly　the　census　of　the　Romans；　and　thence　they　inferred　this　consequence；　that　our　kings　of　the　first　two　races　had　put　themselves　in　the　place　of　the　Roman　emperors；　and　made　no　change　in　their　administration。＇64＇　Besides；　as　particular　duties　raised　under　the　second　race　were　by　change　and　by　certain　restrictions　converted　into　others；＇65＇　they　inferred　thence　that　these　duties　were　the　census　of　the　Romans；　and　as；　since　the　modern　regulations；　they　found　that　the　crown　demesnes　were　absolutely　unalienable；　they　pretended　that　those　duties　which　represented　the　Roman　census；　and　did　not　form　a　part　of　the　demesnes；　were　mere　usurpation。　I　omit　the　other　consequences。

To　apply　the　ideas　of　the　present　time　to　distant　ages　is　the　most　fruitful　source　of　error。　To　those　people　who　want　to　modernize　all　the　ancient　ages；　I　shall　say　what　the　Egyptian　priests　said　to　Solon；　〃O　Athenians；　you　are　mere　children！〃＇66＇

15。　That　what　they　called　Census　was　raised　only　on　the　Bondmen　and　not　on　the　Freemen。　The　king；　the　clergy；　and　the　lords　raised　regular　taxes；　each　on　the　bondmen　of　their　respective　demesnes。　I　prove　it　with　respect　to　the　king；　by　the　capitulary　de　Villis；　with　regard　to　the　clergy；　by　the　codes　of　the　laws　of　the　Barbarians＇67＇　and　in　relation　to　the　lords；　by　the　regulations　which　Charlemagne　made　concerning　this　subject。＇68＇

These　taxes　were　called　census；　they　were　economical　and　not　fiscal　claims；　entirely　private　dues　and　not　public　taxes。

I　affirm　that　what　they　called　census　at　that　time　was　a　tax　raised　upon　the　bondmen。　This　I　prove　by　a　formulary　of　Marculfus　containing　a　permission　from　the　king　to　enter　into　holy　orders；　provided　the　persons　be　freeborn；＇69＇　and　not　enrolled　in　the　register　of　the　census。　I　prove　it　also　by　a　commission　from　Charlemagne　to　a　count＇70＇　whom　he　had　sent　into　Saxony；　which　contains　the　enfranchisement　of　the　Saxons　for　having　embraced　Christianity；　and　is　properly　a　charter　of　freedom。＇71＇　This　prince　restores　them　to　their　former　civil　liberty；＇72＇　and　exempts　them　from　paying　the　census；　It　was；　therefore；　the　same　thing　to　be　a　bondman　as　to　pay　the　census；　to　be　free　as　not　to　pay　it。

By　a　kind　of　letters　patent　of　the　same　prince　in　favour　of　the　Spaniards；＇73＇　who　had　been　received　into　the　monarchy；　the　counts　are　forbidden　to　demand　any　census　of　them；　or　to　deprive　them　of　their　lands。　That　strangers　upon　their　coming　to　France　were　treated　as　bondmen　is　a　thing　well　known；　and　Charlemagne　being　desirous　they　should　be　considered　as　freemen；　since　he　would　have　them　be　proprietors　of　their　lands；　forbad　the　demanding　any　census　of　them。

A　capitulary　of　Charles　the　Bald；＇74＇　given　in　favour　of　those　very　Spaniards；　orders　them　to　be　treated　like　the　other　Franks；　and　forbids　the　requiring　any　census　of　them；　consequently　this　census　was　not　paid　by　freemen。

The　thirtieth　article　of　the　edict　of　Pistes　reforms　the　abuse　by　which　several　of　the　husbandmen　belonging　to　the　king　or　to　the　church　sold　the　lands　dependent　on　their　manors　to　ecclesiastics　or　to　people　of　their　condition；　reserving　only　a　small　cottage　to　themselves；　by　which　means　they　avoided　paying　the　census；　and　it　ordains　that　things　should　be　restored　to　their　primitive　situation：　the　census　was；　therefore；　a　tax　peculiar　to　bondmen。

Thence　also　it　follows　that　there　was　no　general　census　in　the　monarchy；　and　this　is　clear　from　a　great　number　of　passages。　For　what　could　be　the　meaning　of　this　capitulary？＇75＇　〃We　ordain　that　the　royal　census　should　be　levied　in　all　places　where　formerly　it　was　lawfully　levied。〃＇76＇　What　could　be　the　meaning　of　that　in　which　Charlemagne＇77＇　orders　his　commissaries　in　the　provinces　to　make　an　exact　inquiry　into　all　the　census　that　belonged　in　former　times　to　the　king's　demesne？＇78＇　And　of　that＇79＇　in　which　he　disposes　of　the　census　paid　by　those＇80＇　of　whom　they　are　demanded？　What　can　that　other　capitulary　mean＇81＇　in　which　we　read；　〃If　any　person　has　acquired　a　tributary　land＇82＇　on　which　we　were　accustomed　to　levy　the　census？〃　And　that　other；　in　fine；＇83＇　in　which　Charles　the　Bald＇84＇　makes　mention　of　feudal　lands　whose　census　had　from　time　immemorial　belonged　to　the　king。

Observe　。that　there　are　some　passages　which　seem　at　first　sight　to　be　contrary　to　what　I　have　said；　and　yet　confirm　it。　We　have　already　seen　that　the　freemen　in　the　monarchy　were　obliged　only　to　furnish　particular　carriages；　the　capitulary　just　now　cited　gives　to　this　the　name　of　census；　and　opposes　it　to　the　census　paid　by　the　bondmen。

Besides；　the　edict　of　Pistes＇85＇　notices　those　freemen　who　are　obliged　to　pay　the　royal　census　for　their　head　and　for　their　cottages；＇86＇　and　who　had　sold　themselves　during　the　famine。　The　king　orders　them　to　be　ransomed。　This　is　because　those　who　wer