the spirit of laws-第24部分

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ust　be　preserved　and　learned；　that　we　may　judge　in　the　same　manner　to…day　as　yesterday；　and　that　the　lives　and　property　of　the　citizens　may　be　as　certain　and　fixed　as　the　very　constitution　of　the　state。

In　monarchies；　the　administration　of　justice；　which　decides　not　only　in　whatever　belongs　to　life　and　property；　but　likewise　to　honour；　demands　very　scrupulous　inquiries。　The　delicacy　of　the　judge　increases　in　proportion　to　the　increase　of　his　trust；　and　of　the　importance　of　the　interests　on　which　he　determines。

We　must　not；　therefore；　be　surprised　to　find　so　many　rules；　restrictions；　and　extensions　in　the　laws　of　those　countries　　rules　that　multiply　the　particular　cases；　and　seem　to　make　of　reason　itself　an　art。

The　difference　of　rank；　birth；　and　condition　established　in　monarchical　governments　is　frequently　attended　with　distinctions　in　the　nature　of　property；　and　the　laws　relating　to　the　constitution　of　this　government　may　augment　the　number　of　these　distinctions。　Hence；　among　us　goods　are　divided　into　real　estates；　purchases；　dowries；　paraphernalia；　paternal　and　maternal　inheritances；　movables　of　different　kinds；　estates　held　in　fee…simple；　or　in　tail；　acquired　by　descent　or　conveyance；　allodial；　or　held　by　soccage；　ground　rents；　or　annuities。　Each　sort　of　goods　is　subject　to　particular　rules；　which　must　be　complied　with　in　the　disposal　of　them。　These　things　must　needs　diminish　the　simplicity　of　the　laws。

In　our　governments　the　fiefs　have　become　hereditary。　It　was　necessary　that　the　nobility　should　have　a　fixed　property；　that　is；　the　fief　should　have　a　certain　consistency；　to　the　end　that　the　proprietor　might　be　always　in　a　capacity　of　serving　the　prince。　This　must　have　been　productive　of　great　varieties；　for　instance；　there　are　countries　where　fiefs　could　not　be　divided　among　the　brothers；　in　others；　the　younger　brothers　may　be　allowed　a　more　generous　subsistence。

The　monarch　who　knows　each　of　his　provinces　may　establish　different　laws；　or　tolerate　different　customs。　But　as　the　despotic　prince　knows　nothing；　and　can　attend　to　nothing；　he　must　take　general　measures；　and　govern　by　a　rigid　and　inflexible　will；　which　throughout　his　whole　dominions　produces　the　same　effect；　in　short；　everything　bends　under　his　feet。

In　proportion　as　the　decisions　of　the　courts　of　judicature　are　multiplied　in　monarchies；　the　law　is　loaded　with　decrees　that　sometimes　contradict　one　another；　either　because　succeeding　judges　are　of　a　different　way　of　thinking；　or　because　the　same　causes　are　sometimes　well；　and　at　other　times　ill；　defended；　or；　in　fine；　by　reason　of　an　infinite　number　of　abuses；　to　which　all　human　regulations　are　liable。　This　is　a　necessary　evil；　which　the　legislator　redresses　from　time　to　time；　as　contrary　even　to　the　spirit　of　moderate　governments。　For　when　people　are　obliged　to　have　recourse　to　courts　of　judicature；　this　should　come　from　the　nature　of　the　constitution；　and　not　from　the　contradiction　or　uncertainty　of　the　law。

In　governments　where　there　are　necessary　distinctions　of　persons；　there　must　likewise　be　privileges。　This　also　diminishes　the　simplicity；　and　creates　a　thousand　exceptions。

One　of　the　privileges　least　burdensome　to　society；　and　especially　to　him　who　confers　it；　is　that　of　pleading　in　one　court　in　preference　to　another。　Here　new　difficulties　arise；　when　it　becomes　a　question　before　which　court　we　shall　plead。

Far　different　is　the　case　of　the　people　under　despotic　governments。　In　those　countries　I　can　see　nothing　that　the　legislator　is　able　to　decree；　or　the　magistrate　to　judge。　As　the　lands　belong　to　the　prince；　it　follows　that　there　are　scarcely　any　civil　laws　in　regard　to　landed　property。　From　the　right　the　sovereign　has　to　successions；　it　follows；　likewise；　that　there　are　none　relating　to　inheritances。　The　monopolies　established　by　the　prince　for　himself　in　some　countries　render　all　sorts　of　commercial　laws　quite　useless。　The　marriages　which　they　usually　contract　with　female　slaves　are　the　cause　that　there　are　scarcely　any　civil　laws　relating　to　dowries；　or　to　the　particular　advantage　of　married　women。　From　the　prodigious　multitude　of　slaves；　it　follows；　likewise；　that　there　are　very　few　who　have　any　such　thing　as　a　will　of　their　own；　and　of　course　are　answerable　for　their　conduct　before　a　judge。　Most　moral　actions　that　are　only　in　consequence　of　a　father's；　a　husband's；　or　a　master's　will；　are　regulated　by　them；　and　not　by　the　magistrates。

I　forgot　to　observe　that　as　what　we　call　honour　is　a　thing　hardly　known　in　those　countries；　the　several　difficulties　relating　to　this　article；　though　of　such　importance　with　us；　are　with　them　quite　out　of　the　question。　Despotic　power　is　self…sufficient；　round　it　there　is　an　absolute　vacuum。　Hence　it　is　that　when　travellers　favour　us　with　the　description　of　countries　where　arbitrary　sway　prevails；　they　seldom　make　mention　of　civil　laws。＇1＇

All　occasions；　therefore；　of　wrangling　and　law…suits　are　here　removed。　And　to　this　in　part　is　it　owing　that　litigious　people　in　those　countries　are　so　roughly　handled。　As　the　injustice　of　their　demand　is　neither　screened；　palliated；　nor　protected　by　an　infinite　number　of　laws；　of　course　it　is　immediately　discovered。

2。　Of　the　Simplicity　of　Criminal　Laws　in　different　Governments。　We　hear　it　generally　said；　that　justice　ought　to　be　administered　with　us　as　in　Turkey。　Is　it　possible；　then；　that　the　most　ignorant　of　all　nations　should　be　the　most　clear…sighted　on　a　point　which　it　most　behoves　mankind　to　know？

If　we　examine　the　set　forms　of　justice　with　respect　to　the　trouble　the　subject　undergoes　in　recovering　his　property；　or　in　obtaining　satisfaction　for　an　injury　or　affront；　we　shall　find　them　doubtless　too　numerous：　but　if　we　consider　them　in　the　relation　they　bear　to　the　liberty　and　security　of　every　individual；　we　shall　often　find　them　too　few；　and　be　convinced　that　the　trouble；　expense；　delays；　and　even　the　very　dangers　of　our　judiciary　proceedings；　are　the　price　that　each　subject　pays　for　his　liberty。

In　Turkey；　where　little　regard　is　shown　to　the　honour；　life；　or　estate　of　the　subject；　all　causes　are　speedily　decided。　The　method　of　determining　them　is　a　matter　of　indifference；　provided　they　be　determined。　The　pasha；　after　a　quick　hearing；　orders　which　party　he　pleases　to　be　bastinadoed；　and　then　sends　them　about　their　business。

Here　it　would　be　dangerous　to　be　of　a　litigious　disposition；　this　supposes　a　strong　desire　of　obtaining　justice；　a　settled　aversion；　an　active　mind；　and　a　steadiness　in　pursuing　one's　point。　All　this　should　be　avoided　in　a　government　where　fear　ought　to　be　the　only　prevailing　sentiment；　and　in　which　popular　disturbances　are　frequently　attended　with　sudden　and　unforeseen　revolutions。　Here　every　man　ought　to　know　that　the　magistrate　must　not　hear　his　name　mentioned；　and　that　his　security　depends　entirely　on　his　being　reduced　to　a　kind　of　annihilation。

But　in　moderate　governments；　where　the　life　of　the　meanest　subject　is　deemed　precious；　no　man　is　stripped　of　his　honour　or　property　until　after　a　long　inquiry；　and　no　man　is　bereft　of　life　till　his　very　country　has　attacked　him　　an　attack　that　is　never　made　without　leaving　him　all　possible　means　of　making　his　defence。

Hence　it　is　that　when　a　person　renders　himself　absolute；＇2＇　he　immediately　thinks　of　reducing　the　number　of　laws。　In　a　government　thus　constituted　they　are　more　affected　with　particular　inconveniences　than　with　the　liberty　of　the　subject；　which　is　very　little　minded。

In　republics；　it　is　plain　that　as　many　formalities　at　least　are　necessary　as　in　monarchies。　In　both　governments　they　increase　in　proportion　to　the　value　which　is　set　on　the　honour；　fortune；　liberty；　and　life　of　the　subject。

In　republican　governments；　men　are　all　equal；　equal　they　are　also　in　despotic　governments：　in　the　former；　because　they　are　everything；　in　the　latter；　because　they　are　nothing。

3。　In　what　Governments　and　in　what　Cases　the　Judges　ought　to　determine　according　to　the　express　Letter　of　the　Law。　The　nearer　a　government　approaches　towards　a　republic；　the　more　the　manner　of　judging　becomes　settled　and　fixed；　hence　it　was　a　fault　in　the　republic　of　Sparta　for　the　Ephori　to　pass　such　arbitrary　judgments　without　having　any　laws　to　direct　them。　The　first　consuls　at　Rome　pronounced　sentence　in　the　same　manner　as　the　Ephori；　but　the　inconvenience　of　this　proceeding　was　soon　felt；　and　they　were　obliged　to　have　recourse　to　express　and　determinate　laws。

In　despotic　governments　there　are　no　laws；　the　judge　himself　is　his　own　rule。　There　are　laws　in　monarchies；　and　where　these　are　explicit；　the　judge　conforms　to　them；　where　they　are　otherwise；　he　endeavours　to　investigate　their　spirit。　In　republics；　the　very　nature　of　the　constitution　requires　the　judges　to　follow　the　letter　of　the　law；　otherwise　the　law　might　be　explained　to　the　prejudice　of　every　citizen；　in　cases　where　their　honour；　property；　or　life　is　concerned。

At　Rome　the　judges　had　no　more　to　do　than　to　declare　that　the　persons　accused　were　guilty　of　a　particular　crime；　and　then　the　punishment　was　found　in　the　laws；　as　may　be　seen　in　divers　laws　still　extant。　In　England　the　jury　give　their　verdict　whether　the　fact　brought　under　their　cognisance　be　proved　or　not；　if　it　be　prov