the spirit of laws-第26部分

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7。　Of　a　single　Magistrate。　A　magistracy　of　this　kind　cannot　take　place　but　in　a　despotic　government。　We　have　an　instance　in　the　Roman　history　how　far　a　single　magistrate　may　abuse　his　power。　Might　it　not　be　very　well　expected　that　Appius　on　his　tribunal　should　contemn　all　laws；　after　having　violated　that　of　his　own　enacting？＇19＇　Livy　has　given　us　the　iniquitous　distinction　of　the　Decemvir。　He　had　suborned　a　man　to　reclaim　Virginia　in　his　presence　as　his　slave；　Virginia's　relatives　insisted　that　by　virtue　of　his　own　law　she　should　be　consigned　to　them；　till　the　definitive　judgment　was　passed。　Upon　which　he　declared　that　his　law　had　been　enacted　only　in　favour　of　the　father；　and　that　as　Virginius　was　absent；　no　application　could　be　made　of　it　to　the　present　case。＇20＇

8。　Of　Accusation　in　different　Governments。　At　Rome＇21＇　it　was　lawful　for　one　citizen　to　accuse　another。　This　was　agreeable　to　the　spirit　of　a　republic；　where　each　citizen　ought　to　have　an　unlimited　zeal　for　the　public　good；　and　is　supposed　to　hold　all　the　rights　of　his　country　in　his　own　hands。　Under　the　emperors；　the　republican　maxims　were　still　pursued；　and　instantly　appeared　a　pernicious　tribe；　a　swarm　of　informers。　Crafty；　wicked　men；　who　could　stoop　to　any　indignity　to　serve　the　purposes　of　their　ambition；　were　sure　to　busy　themselves　in　the　search　of　criminals　whose　condemnation　might　be　agreeable　to　the　prince；　this　was　the　road　to　honour　and　preferment；＇22＇　but　luckily　we　are　strangers　to　it　in　our　country。

We　have　at　present　an　admirable　law；　namely；　that　by　which　the　prince；　who　is　established　for　the　execution　of　the　laws；　appoints　an　officer　in　each　court　of　judicature　to　prosecute　all　sorts　of　crimes　in　his　name；　hence　the　profession　of　informers　is　a　thing　unknown　to　us；　for　if　this　public　avenger　were　suspected　to　abuse　his　office；　he　would　soon　be　obliged　to　mention　his　author。

By　Plato's　Laws＇23＇　those　who　neglect　to　inform　or　to。　assist　the　magistrates　are　liable　to　punishment。　This　would　not　be　so　proper　in　our　days。　The　public　prosecutor　watches　for　the　safety　of　the　citizens；　he　proceeds　in　his　office　while　they　enjoy　their　quiet　and　ease。

9。　Of　the　Severity　of　Punishments　in　different　Governments。　The　severity　of　punishments　is　fitter　for　despotic　governments；　whose　principle　is　terror；　than　for　a　monarchy　or　a　republic；　whose　spring　is　honour　and　virtue。

In　moderate　governments；　the　love　of　one's　country；　shame；　and　the　fear　of　blame　are　restraining　motives；　capable　of　preventing　a　multitude　of　crimes。　Here　the　greatest　punishment　of　a　bad　action　is　conviction。　The　civil　laws　have　therefore　a　softer　way　of　correcting；　and　do　not　require　so　much　force　and　severity。

In　those　states　a　good　legislator　is　less　bent　upon　punishing　than　preventing　crimes；　he　is　more　attentive　to　inspire　good　morals　than　to　inflict　penalties。

It　is　a　constant　remark　of　the　Chinese　authors＇24＇　that　the　more　the　penal　laws　were　increased　in　their　empire；　the　nearer　they　drew　towards　a　revolution。　This　is　because　punishments　were　augmented　in　proportion　as　the　public　morals　were　corrupted。

It　would　be　an　easy　matter　to　prove　that　in　all；　or　almost　all；　the　governments　of　Europe；　penalties　have　increased　or　diminished　in　proportion　as　those　governments　favoured　or　discouraged　liberty。

In　despotic　governments；　people　are　so　unhappy　as　to　have　a　greater　dread　of　death　than　regret　for　the　loss　of　life；　consequently　their　punishments　ought　to　be　more　severe。　In　moderate　states　they　are　more　afraid　of　losing　their　lives　than　apprehensive　of　the　pain　of　dying；　those　punishments；　therefore；　which　deprive　them　simply　of　life　are　sufficient。

Men　in　excess　of　happiness　or　misery　are　equally　inclinable　to　severity；　witness　conquerors　and　monks。　It　is　mediocrity　alone；　and　a　mixture　of　prosperous　and　adverse　fortune；　that　inspires　us　with　lenity　and　pity。

What　we　see　practised　by　individuals　is　equally　observable　in　regard　to　nations。　In　countries　inhabited　by　savages　who　lead　a　very　hard　life；　and　in　despotic　governments；　where　there　is　only　one　person　on　whom　fortune　lavishes　her　favours；　while　the　miserable　subjects　lie　exposed　to　her　insults；　people　are　equally　cruel。　Lenity　reigns　in　moderate　governments。

When　in　reading　history　we　observe　the　cruelty　of　the　sultans　in　administration　of　justice；　we　shudder　at　the　very　thought　of　the　miseries　of　human　nature。

In　moderate　governments；　a　good　legislator　may　make　use　of　everything　by　way　of　punishment。　Is　it　not　very　extraordinary　that　one　of　the　chief　penalties　at　Sparta　was　to　deprive　a　person　of　the　power　of　lending　out　his　wife；　or　of　receiving　the　wife　of　another　man；　and　to　oblige　him　to　have　no　company　at　home　but　virgins？　In　short；　whatever　the　law　calls　a　punishment　is　such　effectively。

10。　Of　the　ancient　French　Laws。　In　the　ancient　French　laws　we　find　the　true　spirit　of　monarchy。　In　cases　relating　to　pecuniary　mulcts；　the　common　people　are　less　severely　punished　than　the　nobility。＇25＇　But　in　criminal＇26＇　cases　it　is　quite　the　reverse；　the　nobleman　loses　his　honour　and　his　voice　in　court；　while　the　peasant；　who　has　no　honour　to　lose；　undergoes　a　corporal　punishment。

11。　That　when　People　are　virtuous　few　Punishments　are　necessary。　The　people　of　Rome　had　some　share　of　probity。　Such　was　the　force　of　this　probity　that　the　legislator　had　frequently　no　further　occasion　than　to　point　out　the　right　road；　and　they　were　sure　to　follow　it；　one　would　imagine　that　instead　of　precepts　it　was　sufficient　to　give　them　counsels。

The　punishments　of　the　regal　laws；　and　those　of　the　Twelve　Tables；　were　almost　all　abolished　in　the　time　of　the　republic；　in　consequence　either　of　the　Valerian＇27＇　or　of　the　Porcian　law。＇28＇　It　was　never　observed　that　this　step　did　any　manner　of　prejudice　to　the　civil　administration。

This　Valerian　law；　which　restrained　the　magistrates　from　using　violent　methods　against　a　citizen　that　had　appealed　to　the　people；　inflicted　no　other　punishment　on　the　person　who　infringed　it　than　that　of　being　reputed　a　dishonest　man。＇29＇

12。　Of　the　Power　of　Punishments。　Experience　shows　that　in　countries　remarkable　for　the　lenity　of　their　laws　the　spirit　of　the　inhabitants　is　as　much　affected　by　slight　penalties　as　in　other　countries　by　severer　punishments。

If　an　inconvenience　or　abuse　arises　in　the　state；　a　violent　government　endeavours　suddenly　to　redress　it；　and　instead　of　putting　the　old　laws　in　execution；　it　establishes　some　cruel　punishment；　which　instantly　puts　a　stop　to　the　evil。　But　the　spring　of　government　hereby　loses　its　elasticity；　the　imagination　grows　accustomed　to　the　severe　as　well　as　the　milder　punishment；　and　as　the　fear　of　the　latter　diminishes；　they　are　soon　obliged　in　every　case　to　have　recourse　to　the　former。　Robberies　on　the　highway　became　common　in　some　countries；　in　order　to　remedy　this　evil；　they　invented　the　punishment　of　breaking　upon　the　wheel；　the　terror　of　which　put　a　stop　for　a　while　to　this　mischievous　practice。　But　soon　after　robberies　on　the　highways　became　as　common　as　ever。

Desertion　in　our　days　has　grown　to　a　very　great　height；　in　consequence　of　which　it　was　judged　proper　to　punish　those　delinquents　with　death；　and　yet　their　number　did　not　diminish。　The　reason　is　very　natural；　a　soldier；　accustomed　to　venture　his　life；　despises；　or　affects　to　despise；　the　danger　of　losing　it。　He　is　habituated　to　the　fear　of　shame；　it　would　have　been　therefore　much　better　to　have　continued　a　punishment＇30＇　which　branded　him　with　infamy　for　life；　the　penalty　was　pretended　to　be　increased；　while　it　really　diminished。

Mankind　must　not　be　governed　with　too　much　severity；　we　ought　to　make　a　prudent　use　of　the　means　which　nature　has　given　us　to　conduct　them。　If　we　inquire　into　the　cause　of　all　human　corruptions；　we　shall　find　that　they　proceed　from　the　impunity　of　criminals；　and　not　from　the　moderation　of　punishments。

Let　us　follow　nature；　who　has　given　shame　to　man　for　his　scourge；　and　let　the　heaviest　part　of　the　punishment　be　the　infamy　attending　it。

But　if　there　be　some　countries　where　shame　is　not　a　consequence　of　punishment；　this　must　be　owing　to　tyranny；　which　has　inflicted　the　same　penalties　on　villains　and　honest　men。

And　if　there　are　others　where　men　are　deterred　only　by　cruel　punishments；　we　may　be　sure　that　this　must；　in　a　great　measure；　arise　from　the　violence　of　the　government　which　has　used　such　penalties　for　slight　transgressions。

It　often　happens　that　a　legislator；　desirous　of　remedying　an　abuse；　thinks　of　nothing　else；　his　eyes　are　open　only　to　this　object；　and　shut　to　its　inconveniences。　When　the　abuse　is　redressed；　you　see　only　the　severity　of　the　legislator；　yet　there　remains　an　evil　in　the　state　that　has　sprung　from　this　severity；　the　minds　of　the　people　are　corrupted；　and　become　habituated　to　despotism。

Lysander＇31＇　having　obtained　a　victory　over　the　Athenians；　the　prisoners　were　ordered　to　be　tried；　in　consequence　of　an　accusation　brought　against　that　nation　of　having　thrown　all　the　captives　of　two　galleys　down　a　precipice；　and　of　having　resolved　in　full　assembly　to　cut　off　the　hands　of　those　whom　they　should　chance　to　make　prisoners。　The　Athenians　were　therefore　all　massacred；　except　Adymantes；　who　had　opposed　this　decree。　Lysande