the spirit of laws-第28部分

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ch　were　the　most　rigorous。

Maximinus；　that　fierce　and　stupid　prince；　increased　the　rigour　of　the　military　government　which　he　ought　to　have　softened。　The　senate　were　informed；　says　Capitolinus；＇49＇　that　some　had　been　crucified；　others　exposed　to　wild　beasts；　or　sewn　up　in　the　skins　of　beasts　lately　killed；　without　any　manner　of　regard　to　their　dignity。　It　seemed　as　if　he　wanted　to　exercise　the　military　discipline；　on　the　model　of　which　he　pretended　to　regulate　the　civil　administration。

In　The　Consideration　on　the　Rise　and　Declension　of　the　Roman　Grandeur＇50＇　we　find　in　what　manner　Constantine　changed　the　military　despotism　into　a　military　and　civil　government；　and　drew　nearer　to　monarchy。　There　we　may　trace　the　different　revolutions　of　this　state；　and　see　how　they　fell　from　rigour　to　indolence；　and　from　indolence　to　impunity。

16。　Of　the　just　Proportion　between　Punishments　and　Crimes。　It　is　an　essential　point；　that　there　should　be　a　certain　proportion　in　punishments；　because　it　is　essential　that　a　great　crime　should　be　avoided　rather　than　a　smaller；　and　that　which　is　more　pernicious　to　society　rather　than　that　which　is　less。

〃An　impostor；＇51＇　who　called　himself　Constantine　Ducas；　raised　a　great　insurrection　at　Constantinople。　He　was　taken　and　condemned　to　be　whipped；　but　upon　informing　against　several　persons　of　distinction；　he　was　sentenced　to　be　burned　as　a　calumniator。〃　It　is　very　extraordinary　that　they　should　thus　proportion　the　punishments　between　the　crime　of　high　treason　and　that　of　calumny。

This　puts　me　in　mind　of　a　saying　of　Charles　II；　King　of　Great　Britain。　He　saw　a　man　one　day　standing　in　the　pillory；　upon　which　he　asked　what　crime　the　man　had　committed。　He　was　answered；　〃Please　your　Majesty；　he　has　written　a　libel　against　your　ministers。〃　〃The　fool！〃　said　the　King；　〃why　did　he　not　write　against　me？　They　would　have　done　nothing　to　him。〃

〃Seventy　persons　having　conspired　against　the　Emperor　Basil；　he　ordered　them　to　be　whipped；　and　the　hair　of　their　heads　and　beards　to　be　burned。　A　stag；　one　day；　having　taken　hold　of　him　by　the　girdle　with　his　horn；　one　of　his　retinue　drew　his　sword；　cut　the　girdle；　and　saved　him；　upon　which　he　ordered　that　person's　head　to　be　cut　off；　for　having；〃　said　he；　〃drawn　his　sword　against　his　sovereign。〃＇52＇　Who　could　imagine　that　the　same　prince　could　ever　have　passed　two　such　different　judgments？

It　is　a　great　abuse　amongst　us　to　condemn　to　the　same　punishment　a　person　that　only　robs　on　the　highway　and　another　who　robs　and　murders。　Surely；　for　the　public　security；　some　difference　should　be　made　in　the　punishment。

In　China；　those　who　add　murder　to　robbery　are　cut　in　pieces：＇53＇　but　not　so　the　others；　to　this　difference　it　is　owing　that　though　they　rob　in　that　country　they　never　murder。

In　Russia；　where　the　punishment　of　robbery　and　murder　is　the　same；　they　always　murder。＇54＇　The　dead；　say　they；　tell　no　tales。

Where　there　is　no　difference　in　the　penalty；　there　should　be　some　in　the　expectation　of　pardon。　In　England　they　never　murder　on　the　highway；　because　robbers　have　some　hopes　of　transportation；　which　is　not　the　case　in　respect　to　those　that　commit　murder。

Letters　of　grace　are　of　excellent　use　in　moderate　governments。　This　power　which　the　prince　has　of　pardoning；　exercised　with　prudence；　is　capable　of　producing　admirable　effects。　The　principle　of　despotic　government；　which　neither　grants　nor　receives　any　pardon；　deprives　it　of　these　advantages。

17。　Of　the　Rack。　The　wickedness　of　mankind　makes　it　necessary　for　the　law　to　suppose　them　better　than　they　really　are。　Hence　the　deposition　of　two　witnesses　is　sufficient　in　the　punishment　of　all　crimes。　The　law　believes　them；　as　if　they　spoke　by　the　mouth　of　truth。　Thus　we　judge　that　every　child　conceived　in　wedlock　is　legitimate；　the　law　having　a　confidence　in　the　mother；　as　if　she　were　chastity　itself。　But　the　use　of　the　rack　against　criminals　cannot　be　defended　on　a　like　plea　of　necessity。

We　have　before　us　the　example　of　a　nation　blessed　with　an　excellent　civil　government；＇55＇　where　without　any　inconvenience　the　practice　of　racking　criminals　is　rejected。　It　is　not；　therefore；　in　its　own　nature　necessary。＇56＇

So　many　men　of　learning　and　genius　have　written　against　the　custom　of　torturing　criminals；　that　after　them　I　dare　not　presume　to　meddle　with　the　subject。　I　was　going　to　say　that　it　might　suit　despotic　states；　where　whatever　inspires　fear　is　the　fittest　spring　of　government。　I　was　going　to　say　that　the　slaves　among　the　Greeks　and　Romans　　but　nature　cries　out　aloud；　and　asserts　her　rights。

18。　Of　pecuniary　and　corporal　Punishments。　Our　ancestors；　the　Germans；　admitted　of　none　but　pecuniary　punishments。　Those　free　and　warlike　people　were　of　opinion　that　their　blood　ought　not　to　be　spilled　but　with　sword　in　hand。　On　the　contrary；　these　punishments　are　rejected　by　the　Japanese；＇57＇　under　pretence　that　the　rich　might　elude　them。　But　are　not　the　rich　afraid　of　being　stripped　of　their　property？　And　might　not　pecuniary　penalties　be　proportioned　to　people's　fortunes？　And；　in　fine；　might　not　infamy　be　added　to　those　punishments？

A　good　legislator　takes　a　just　medium；　he　ordains　neither　always　pecuniary；　nor　always　corporal　punishments。

19。　Of　the　Law　of　Retaliation。　The　use　of　the　law　of　retaliation＇58＇　is　very　frequent　in　despotic　countries；　where　they　are　fond　of　simple　laws。　Moderate　governments　admit　of　it　sometimes；　but　with　this　difference；　that　the　former　exercise　it　in　full　rigour；　whereas　among　the　latter　it　ever　receives　some　kind　of　limitation。

The　law　of　the　Twelve　Tables　admitted　two：　first；　it　never　condemned　to　retaliation；　but　when　the　plaintiff　could　not　be　satisfied　in　any　other　manner。＇59＇　Secondly；　after　condemnation　they　might　pay　damages　and　interest；＇60＇　and　then　the　corporal　was　changed　into　a　pecuniary　punishment。＇61＇

20。　Of　the　Punishment　of　Fathers　for　the　Crimes　of　their　Children。　In　China；　fathers　are　punished　for　the　crimes　of　their　children。　This　was　likewise　the　custom　of　Peru＇62＇　　a　custom　derived　from　the　notion　of　despotic　power。　Little　does　it　signify　to　say　that　in　China　the　father　is　punished　for　not　having　exerted　that　paternal　authority　which　nature　has　established；　and　the　laws　themselves　have　improved。　This　still　supposes　that　there　is　no　honour　among　the　Chinese。　Amongst　us；　parents　whose　children　are　condemned　by　the　laws　of　their　country；　and　children＇63＇　whose　parents　have　undergone　the　like　fate；　are　as　severely　punished　by　shame；　as　they　would　be　in　China　by　the　loss　of　their　lives。

21。　Of　the　Clemency　of　the　Prince。　Clemency　is　the　characteristic　of　monarchs。　In　republics；　whose　principle　is　virtue；　it　is　not　so　necessary。　In　despotic　governments；　where　fear　predominates；　it　is　less　customary；　because　the　great　men　are　to　be　restrained　by　examples　of　severity。　It　is　more　necessary　in　monarchies；　where　they　are　governed　by　honour；　which　frequently　requires　what　the　very　law　forbids。　Disgrace　is　here　equivalent　to　chastisement；　and　even　the　forms　of　justice　are　punishments。　This　is　because　particular　kinds　of　penalty　are　formed　by　shame；　which　on　every　side　invades　the　delinquent。

The　great　men　in　monarchies　are　so　heavily　punished　by　disgrace；　by　the　loss　（though　often　imaginary）　of　their　fortune；　credit；　acquaintances；　and　pleasures；　that　rigour　in　respect　to　them　is　needless。　It　can　tend　only　to　divest　the　subject　of　the　affection　he　has　for　the　person　of　his　prince；　and　of　the　respect　he　ought　to　have　for　public　posts　and　employments。

As　the　instability　of　the　great　is　natural　to　a　despotic　government；　so　their　security　is　interwoven　with　the　nature　of　monarchy。

So　many　are　the　advantages　which　monarchs　gain　by　clemency；　so　greatly　does　it　raise　their　fame；　and　endear　them　to　their　subjects；　that　it　is　generally　happy　for　them　to　have　an　opportunity　of　displaying　it；　which　in　this　part　of　the　world　is　seldom　wanting。

Some　branch；　perhaps；　of　their　authority；　but　never　hardly　the　whole；　will　be　disputed；　and　if　they　sometimes　fight　for　their　crown；　they　do　not　fight　for　their　life。

But　some　may　ask　when　it　is　proper　to　punish；　and　when　to　pardon。　This　is　a　point　more　easily　felt　that　prescribed。　When　there　is　danger　in　the　exercise　of　clemency；　it　is　visible；　nothing　so　easy　as　to　distinguish　it　from　that　imbecility　which　exposes　princes　to　contempt　and　to　the　very　incapacity　of　punishing。

The　Emperor　Maurice　made　a　resolution　never　to　spill　the　blood　of　his　subjects。　Anastasius＇64＇　punished　no　crimes　at　all。　Isaac　Angelus　took　an　oath　that　no　one　should　be　put　to　death　during　his　reign。　Those　Greek　emperors　forgot　that　it　was　not　for　nothing　they　were　entrusted　with　the　sword。

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1。　In　Mazulipatam　it　could　never　be　found　out　that　there　was　such　a　thing　as　a　written　law。　See　the　Collection　of　Voyages　that　Contributed　to　the　Establishment　of　the　East　India　Company；　iv。；　part　I；　p。　391。　The　Indians　are　regulated　in　their　decisions　by　certain　customs。　The　Vedan　and　such　books　do　not　contain　civil　laws；　but　religious　precepts。　See　Edifying　Letters；　coll。　xiv。

2。　C？sar；　Cromwell；　and　many　others。

3。　Non　liquet。

4。　Quas　actiones　ne　populus　prout　vellet　institueret；　certas　solemnesque　esse　voluerunt　　Dig。　de　Orig。　Jur。；　ii