the spirit of laws-第47部分

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ssembling　by　tribes；＇39＇　and　not　by　centuries；　and　when　the　new　magistracies＇40＇　of　tribunes　and　？diles　were　established　in　favour　of　the　people；　the　latter　obtained　that　they　should　meet　by　curi？　in　order　to　nominate　them；　and　after　their　power　was　quite　settled；　they　gained＇41＇　so　far　their　point　as　to　assemble　by　tribes　to　proceed　to　this　nomination。

15。　In　what　Manner　Rome；　in　the　flourishing　State　of　that　Republic；　suddenly　lost　its　Liberty。　In　the　heat　of　the　contests　between　the　patricians　and　the　plebeians；　the　latter　insisted　upon　having　fixed　laws；　to　the　end　that　the　public　judgments　should　no　longer　be　the　effect　of　capricious　will　or　arbitrary　power。　The　senate；　after　a　great　deal　of　resistance；　acquiesced；　and　decemvirs　were　nominated　to　compose　those　laws。　It　was　thought　proper　to　grant　them　an　extraordinary　power；　because　they　were　to　give　laws　to　parties　whose　views　and　interest　it　was　almost　impossible　to　unite。　The　nomination　of　all　magistrates　was　suspended；　and　the　decemvirs　were　chosen　in　the　comitia　sole　administrators　of　the　republic。　Thus　they　found　themselves　invested　with　the　consular　and　the　tribunition　power。　By　one　they　had　the　privilege　of　assembling　the　senate；　by　the　other　that　of　convening　the　people；　but　they　assembled　neither　senate　nor　people。　Ten　men　only　of　the　republic　had　the　whole　legislative；　the　whole　executive；　and　the　whole　judiciary　power。　Rome　saw　herself　enslaved　by　as　cruel　a　tyranny　as　that　of　Tarquin。　When　Tarquin　trampled　on　the　liberty　of　that　city；　she　was　seized　with　indignation　at　the　power　he　had　usurped；　when　the　decemvirs　exercised　every　act　of　oppression；　she　was　astonished　at　the　extraordinary　power　she　had　granted。

What　a　strange　system　of　tyranny　　a　tyranny　carried　on　by　men　who　had　obtained　the　political　and　military　power；　merely　from　their　knowledge　in　civil　affairs；　and　who　at　that　very　juncture　stood　in　need　of　the　courage　of　those　citizens　to　protect　them　abroad　who　so　tamely　submitted　to　domestic　oppression！

The　spectacle　of　Virginia's　death；　whom　her　father　immolated　to　chastity　and　liberty；　put　an　end　to　the　power　of　the　decemvirs。　Every　man　became　free；　because　every　man　had　been　injured；　each　showed　himself　a　citizen　because　each　had　a　tie　of　the　parent。　The　senate　and　the　people　resumed　a　liberty　which　had　been　committed　to　ridiculous　tyrants。

No　people　were　so　easily　moved　by　public　spectacles　as　the　Romans。　That　of　the　empurpled　body　of　Lucretia　put　an　end　to　the　regal　government。　The　debtor　who　appeared　in　the　forum　covered　with　wounds　caused　an　alteration　in　the　republic。　The　decemvirs　owed　their　expulsion　to　the　tragedy　of　Virginia。　To　condemn　Manlius；　it　was　necessary　to　keep　the　people　from　seeing　the　Capitol。　C？sar's　bloody　garment　flung　Rome　again　into　slavery。

16。　Of　the　legislative　Power　in　the　Roman　Republic。　There　were　no　rights　to　contest　under　the　decemvirs：　but　upon　the　restoration　of　liberty；　jealousies　revived；　and　so　long　as　the　patricians　had　any　privileges　left；　they　were　sure　to　be　stripped　of　them　by　the　plebeians。

The　mischief　would　not　have　been　so　great　had　the　plebeians　been　satisfied　with　this　success；　but　they　also　injured　the　patricians　as　citizens。　When　the　people　assembled　by　curi？　or　centuries；　they　were　composed　of　senators；　patricians；　and　plebeians；　in　their　disputes　the　plebeians　gained　this　point；＇42＇　that　they　alone　without　patricians　or　senate　should　enact　the　laws　called　Plebiscita；　and　the　assemblies　in　which　they　were　made　had　the　name　of　comitia　by　tribes。　Thus　there　were　cases　in　which　the　patricians＇43＇　had　no　share　in　the　legislative　power；　but＇44＇　were　subject　to　the　legislation　of　another　body　of　the　state。　This　was　the　extravagance　of　liberty。　The　people；　to　establish　a　democracy；　acted　against　the　very　principles　of　that　government。　One　would　have　imagined　that　so　exorbitant　a　power　must　have　destroyed　the　authority　of　the　senate。　But　Rome　had　admirable　institutions。　Two　of　these　were　especially　remarkable：　one　by　which　the　legislative　power　of　the　people　was　established；　and　the　other　by　which　it　was　limited。

The　censors；　and　before　them　the　consuls；　modelled＇45＇　and　created；　as　it　were；　every　five　years　the　body　of　the　people；　they　exercised　the　legislation　on　the　very　part　that　was　possessed　of　the　legislative　power。　〃Tiberius　Gracchus；〃　says　Cicero；　〃caused　the　freedmen　to　be　admitted　into　the　tribes；　not　by　the　force　of　his　eloquence；　but　by　a　word；　by　a　gesture；　which　had　he　not　effected；　the　republic；　whose　drooping　head　we　are　at　present　scarcely　able　to　uphold；　would　not　even　exist。〃

On　the　other　hand；　the　senate　had　the　power　of　rescuing；　as　it　were；　the　republic　out　of　the　hands　of　the　people；　by　creating　a　dictator；　before　whom　the　sovereign　bowed　his　head；　and　the　most　popular　laws　were　silent。＇46＇

17。　Of　the　executive　Power　in　the　same　Republic。　Jealous　as　the　people　were　of　their　legislative　power；　they　had　no　great　uneasiness　about　the　executive。　This　they　left　almost　entirely　to　the　senate　and　to　the　consuls；　reserving　scarcely　anything　more　to　themselves　than　the　right　of　choosing　the　magistrates；　and　of　confirming　the　acts　of　the　senate　and　of　the　generals。

Rome；　whose　passion　was　to　command；　whose　ambition　was　to　conquer；　whose　commencement　and　progress　were　one　continued　usurpation；　had　constantly　affairs　of　the　greatest　weight　upon　her　hands；　her　enemies　were　ever　conspiring　against　her；　or　she　against　her　enemies。

As　she　was　obliged　to　behave　on　the　one　hand　with　heroic　courage；　and　on　the　other　with　consummate　prudence；　it　was　requisite；　of　course；　that　the　management　of　affairs　should　be　committed　to　the　senate。　Thus　the　people　disputed　every　branch　of　the　legislative　power　with　the　senate；　because　they　were　jealous　of　their　liberty；　but　they　had　no　disputes　about　the　executive；　because　they　were　animated　with　the　love　of　glory。

So　great　was　the　share　the　senate　took　in　the　executive　power；　that；　as　Polybius＇47＇　informs　us；　foreign　nations　imagined　that　Rome　was　an　aristocracy。　The　senate　disposed　of　the　public　money；　and　farmed　out　the　revenue；　they　were　arbiters　of　the　affairs　of　their　allies；　they　determined　war　or　peace；　and　directed　in　this　respect　the　consuls；　they　fixed　the　number　of　the　Roman　and　of　the　allied　troops；　disposed　of　the　provinces　and　armies　to　the　consuls　or　pr？tors；　and　upon　the　expiration　of　the　year　of　command　had　the　power　of　appointing　successors；　they　decreed　triumphs；　received　and　sent　embassies：　they　nominated；　rewarded；　punished；　and　were　judges　of　kings；　declared　them　allies　of　the　Roman　people；　or　stripped　them　of　that　title。

The　consuls　levied　the　troops　which　they　were　to　carry　into　the　field；　had　the　command　of　the　forces　by　sea　and　by　land；　disposed　of　the　forces　of　the　allies；　were　invested　with　the　whole　power　of　the　republic　in　the　provinces；　gave　peace　to　the　vanquished　nations；　imposed　conditions　on　them；　or　referred　them　to　the　senate。

In　the　earliest　times；　when　the　people　had　some　share　in　the　affairs　relating　to　war　or　peace；　they　exercised　rather　their　legislative　than　their　executive　power。　They　scarcely　did　anything　else　but　confirm　the　acts　of　the　kings；　and　after　their　expulsion　those　of　the　consuls　or　senate。　So　far　were　they　from　being　the　arbiters　of　war　that　we　have　instances　of　its　having　been　often　declared；　notwithstanding　the　opposition　of　the　tribunes。　But　growing　wanton　in　their　prosperity；　they　increased　their　executive　power。　Thus＇48＇　they　created　the　military　tribunes；　the　nomination　of　whom　till　then　had　belonged　to　the　generals；　and　some　time　before　the　first　Punic　war；　they　decreed　that　only　their　own　body　should　have　the　right　of　declaring　war。＇49＇

18。　Of　the　judiciary　Power　in　the　Roman　Government。　The　judiciary　power　was　given　to　the　people；　to　the　senate；　to　the　magistrates；　and　to　particular　judges。　We　must　see　in　what　manner　it　was　distributed；　beginning　with　their　civil　affairs。

The　consuls　had　the　judiciary　power＇50＇　after　the　expulsion　of　the　kings；　as　the　pr？tors　were　judges　after　the　consuls。　Servius　Tullius　had　divested　himself　of　the　power　of　determining　civil　causes；　which　was　not　resumed　by　the　consuls；　except　in　some＇51＇　very　rare　cases；　for　that　reason　called　extraordinary。＇52＇　They　were　satisfied　with　naming　the　judges；　and　establishing　the　several　tribunals。　By　a　discourse　of　Appius　Claudius；　in　Dionysius　Halicarnassus；＇53＇　it　appears　that　as　early　as　the　259th　year　of　Rome　this　was　looked　upon　as　a　settled　custom　among　the　Romans；　and　it　is　not　tracing　it　very　high　to　refer　it　to　Servius　Tullius。

Every　year　the　pr？tor　made　a　list＇54＇　of　such　as　he　chose　for　the　office　of　judges　during　his　magistracy。　A　sufficient　number　was　pitched　upon　for　each　cause；　a　custom　very　nearly　the　same　as　that　now　practised　in　England。　And　what　was　extremely　favourable　to　liberty＇55＇　was　the　pr？tor's　fixing　the　judges　with　the　consent＇56＇　of　the　parties。　The　great　number　of　exceptions　that　can　be　made　in　England　amounts　pretty　nearly　to　this　very　custom。

The　judges　decided　only　the　questions　relating　to　matter　of　fact；＇57＇　for　example；　whether　a　sum　of　money　had　been　paid　or　not；　whether　an　act　had　been　committed　or　not。　But　as　to　questions　of　law；＇58＇　as　these　required　a