the spirit of laws-第79部分

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de；　the　manners　of　the　Romans　were　most　admirable。　The　guardianship　was　given　to　the　nearest　relative　of　the　infant；　from　a　consideration　that　he　ought　to　have　the　trouble　of　the　tutelage　who　might　enjoy　the　advantage　of　possessing　the　inheritance。　They　did　not　imagine　the　life　of　the　heir　in　danger　though　it　was　put　into　a　person's　hands　who　would　reap　a　benefit　by　his　death。　But　when　the　manners　of　Rome　were　changed；　her　legislators　altered　their　conduct。　〃If；　in　the　pupillary　substitution；〃　say　Gaius＇29＇　and　Justinian；＇30＇　〃the　testator　is　afraid　that　the　substitute　will　lay　any　snares　for　the　pupil；　he　may　leave　the　vulgar　substitution　open；＇31＇　and　put　the　pupillary　into　a　part　of　the　testament；　which　cannot　be　opened　till　after　a　certain　time。〃　These　fears　and　precautions　were　unknown　to　the　primitive　Romans。

25。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　Roman　law　gave　the　liberty　of　making　presents　before　marriage；　after　the　marriage　they　were　not　allowed。　This　was　founded　on　the　manners　of　the　Romans；　who　were　led　to　marriage　only　by　frugality；　simplicity；　and　modesty；　but　might　suffer　themselves　to　be　seduced　by　domestic　cares；　by　complacency；　and　the　constant　tenor　of　conjugal　felicity。

A　law　of　the　Visigoths＇32＇　forbade　the　man　giving　more　to　the　woman　he　was　to　marry　than　the　tenth　part　of　his　substance；　and　his　giving　her　anything　during　the　first　year　of　their　marriage。　This　also　took　its　rise　from　the　manners　of　the　country。　The　legislators　were　willing　to　put　a　stop　to　that　Spanish　ostentation　which　only　led　them　to　display　an　excessive　liberality　in　acts　of　magnificence。

The　Romans　by　their　laws　put　a　stop　to　some　of　the　inconveniences　which　arose　from　the　most　durable　empire　in　the　world　　that　of　virtue；　the　Spaniards；　by　theirs；　would　prevent　the　bad　effects　of　a　tyranny　the　most　frail　and　transitory　　that　of　beauty。

26。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　law　of　Theodosius　and　Valentinian＇33＇　drew　the　causes　of　repudiation　from　the　ancient　manners　and　customs　of　the　Romans。＇34＇　It　placed　in　the　number　of　these　causes　the　behaviour　of　the　husband　who　beat　his　wife＇35＇　in　a　manner　that　disgraced　the　character　of　a　free…born　woman。　This　cause　was　omitted　in　the　following　laws：＇36＇　for　their　manners；　in　this　respect；　had　undergone　a　change；　the　eastern　customs　having　banished　those　of　Europe。　The　first　eunuch　of　the　empress；　wife　to　Justinian　II；　threatened；　says　the　historian；　to　chastise　her　in　the　same　manner　as　children　are　punished　at　school。　Nothing　but　established　manners；　or　those　which　they　were　seeking　to　establish；　could　raise　even　an　idea　of　this　kind。

We　have　seen　how　the　laws　follow　the　manners　of　a　people；　let　us　now　observe　how　the　manners　follow　the　laws。

27。　How　the　Laws　contribute　to　form　the　Manners；　Customs；　and　Character　of　a　Nation。　The　customs　of　an　enslaved　people　are　a　part　of　their　servitude；　those　of　a　free　people　are　a　part　of　their　liberty。

I　have　spoken　in　the　eleventh　book＇37＇　of　a　free　people；　and　have　given　the　principles　of　their　constitution：　let　us　now　see　the　effects　which　follow　from　this　liberty；　the　character　it　is　capable　of　forming；　and　the　customs　which　naturally　result　from　it。

I　do　not　deny　that　the　climate　may　have　produced　a　great　part　of　the　laws；　manners；　and　customs　of　this　nation；　but　I　maintain　that　its　manners　and　customs　have　a　close　connection　with　its　laws。

As　there　are　in　this　state　two　visible　powers　　the　legislative　and　executive；　and　as　every　citizen　has　a　will　of　his　own；　and　may　at　pleasure　assert　his　independence；　most　men　have　a　greater　fondness　for　one　of　these　powers　than　for　the　other；　and　the　multitude　have　commonly　neither　equity　nor　sense　enough　to　show　an　equal　affection　to　both。

And　as　the　executive　power；　by　disposing　of　all　employments；　may　give　great　hopes；　and　no　fears；　every　man　who　obtains　any　favour　from　it　is　ready　to　espouse　its　cause；　while　it　is　liable　to　be　attacked　by　those　who　have　nothing　to　hope　from　it。

All　the　passions　being　unrestrained；　hatred；　envy；　jealousy；　and　an　ambitious　desire　of　riches　and　honours；　appears　in　their　extent；　were　it　otherwise；　the　state　would　be　in　the　condition　of　a　man　weakened　by　sickness；　who　is　without　passions　because　he　is　without　strength。

The　hatred　which　arises　between　the　two　parties　will　always　subsist；　because　it　will　always　be　impotent。

These　parties　being　composed　of　freemen；　if　the　one　becomes　too　powerful　for　the　other；　as　a　consequence　of　liberty；　this　other　is　depressed；　while　the　citizens　take　the　weaker　side　with　the　same　readiness　as　the　hands　lend　their　assistance　to　remove　the　infirmities　and　disorders　of　the　body。

Every　individual　is　independent；　and　being　commonly　led　by　caprice　and　humour；　frequently　changes　parties；　he　abandons　one　where　he　left　all　his　friends；　to　unite　himself　to　another　in　which　he　finds　all　his　enemies：　so　that　in　this　nation　it　frequently　happens　that　the　people　forget　the　laws　of　friendship；　as　well　as　those　of　hatred。

The　sovereign　is　here　in　the　same　case　with　a　private　person；　and　against　the　ordinary　maxims　of　prudence　is　frequently　obliged　to　give　his　confidence　to　those　who　have　most　offended　him；　and　to　disgrace　the　men　who　have　best　served　him：　he　does　that　by　necessity　which　other　princes　do　by　choice。

As　we　are　afraid　of　being　deprived　of　the　blessing　we　already　enjoy；　and　which　may　be　disguised　and　misrepresented　to　us；　and　as　fear　always　enlarges　objects；　the　people　are　uneasy　under　such　a　situation；　and　believe　themselves　in　danger；　even　in　those　moments　when　they　are　most　secure。

As　those　who　with　the　greatest　warmth　oppose　the　executive　power　dare　not　avow　the　self…interested　motives　of　their　opposition；　so　much　the　more　do　they　increase　the　terrors　of　the　people；　who　can　never　be　certain　whether　they　are　in　danger　or　not。　But　even　this　contributes　to　make　them　avoid　the　real　dangers；　to　which　they　may；　in　the　end；　be　exposed。

But　the　legislative　body　having　the　confidence　of　the　people；　and　being　more　enlightened　than　they；　may　calm　their　uneasiness；　and　make　them　recover　from　the　bad　impressions　they　have　entertained。

This　is　the　great　advantage　which　this　government　has　over　the　ancient　democracies；　in　which　the　people　had　an　immediate　power；　for　when　they　were　moved　and　agitated　by　the　orators；　these　agitations　always　produced　their　effect。

But　when　an　impression　of　terror　has　no　certain　object；　it　produces　only　clamour　and　abuse；　it　has；　however；　this　good　effect；　that　it　puts　all　the　springs　of　government　into　motion；　and　fixes　the　attention　of　every　citizen。　But　if　it　arises　from　a　violation　of　the　fundamental　laws；　it　is　sullen；　cruel；　and　produces　the　most　dreadful　catastrophes。

Soon　we　should　see　a　frightful　calm；　during　which　every　one　would　unite　against　that　power　which　had　violated　the　laws。

If；　when　the　uneasiness　proceeds　from　no　certain　object；　some　foreign　power　should　threaten　the　state；　or　put　its　prosperity　or　its　glory　in　danger；　the　little　interests　of　party　would　then　yield　to　the　more　strong　and　binding；　and　there　would　be　a　perfect　coalition　in　favour　of　the　executive　power。

But　if　the　disputes　were　occasioned　by　a　violation　of　the　fundamental　laws；　and　a　foreign　power　should　appear；　there　would　be　a　revolution　that　would　neither　alter　the　constitution　nor　the　form　of　government。　For　a　revolution　formed　by　liberty　becomes　a　confirmation　of　liberty。

A　free　nation　may　have　a　deliverer：　a　nation　enslaved　can　have　only　another　oppressor。

For　whoever　is　able　to　dethrone　an　absolute　prince　has　a　power　sufficient　to　become　absolute　himself。

As　the　enjoyment　of　liberty；　and　even　its　support　and　preservation；　consists　in　every　man's　being　allowed　to　speak　his　thoughts；　and　to　lay　open　his　sentiments；　a　citizen　in　this　state　will　say　or　write　whatever　the　laws　do　not　expressly　forbid　to　be　said　or　written。

A　people　like　this；　being　always　in　a　ferment；　are　more　easily　conducted　by　their　passions　than　by　reason；　which　never　produces　any　great　effect　in　the　mind　of　man；　it　is　therefore　easy　for　those　who　govern　to　make　them　undertake　enterprises　contrary　to　their　true　interest。

This　nation　is　passionately　fond　of　liberty；　because　this　liberty　is　real；　and　it　is　possible　for　it；　in　its　defence；　to　sacrifice　its　wealth；　its　ease；　its　interest；　and　to　support　the　burden　of　the　heaviest　taxes；　even　such　as　a　despotic　prince　durst　not　lay　upon　his　subjects。

But　as　the　people　have　a　certain　knowledge　of　the　necessity　of　submitting　to　those　taxes；　they　pay　them　from　the　well…founded　hope　of　their　discontinuance；　their　burdens　are　heavy；　but　they　do　not　feel　their　weight；　whilst　in　other　states　the　uneasiness　is　infinitely　greater　than　the　evil。

This　nation　must　therefore　have　a　fixed　and　certain　credit；　because　it　borrows　of　itself　and　pays　itself。　It　is　possible　for　it　to　undertake　things　above　its　natural　strength；　and　employ　against　its　enemies　immense　sums　of　fictitious　riches；　which　the　credit　and　nature　of　the　government　may　render　real。

To　preserve　its　liberty；　it　borrows　of　its　subjects：　and　the　subjects；　seeing　that　its　credit　would　be　lost　if　ever　it　were　conquered；　have　a　new　motive　to　make　fresh　efforts　in　defence　of　its　liberty。

This　nation；　in