the spirit of laws-第8部分

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By　the　allurement　of　pleasure　they　preserve　the　individual；　and　by　the　same　allurement　they　preserve　their　species。　They　have　natural　laws；　because　they　are　united　by　sensation；　positive　laws　they　have　none；　because　they　are　not　connected　by　knowledge。　And　yet　they　do　not　invariably　conform　to　their　natural　laws；　these　are　better　observed　by　vegetables；　that　have　neither　understanding　nor　sense。

Brutes　are　deprived　of　the　high　advantages　which　we　have；　but　they　have　some　which　we　have　not。　They　have　not　our　hopes；　but　they　are　without　our　fears；　they　are　subject　like　us　to　death；　but　without　knowing　it；　even　most　of　them　are　more　attentive　than　we　to　self…preservation；　and　do　not　make　so　bad　a　use　of　their　passions。　

Man；　as　a　physical　being；　is　like　other　bodies　governed　by　invariable　laws。　As　an　intelligent　being；　he　incessantly　transgresses　the　laws　established　by　God；　and　changes　those　of　his　own　instituting。　He　is　left　to　his　private　direction；　though　a　limited　being；　and　subject；　like　all　finite　intelligences；　to　ignorance　and　error：　even　his　imperfect　knowledge　he　loses；　and　as　a　sensible　creature；　he　is　hurried　away　by　a　thousand　impetuous　passions。　Such　a　being　might　every　instant　forget　his　Creator；　God　has　therefore　reminded　him　of　his　duty　by　the　laws　of　religion。　Such　a　being　is　liable　every　moment　to　forget　himself；　philosophy　has　provided　against　this　by　the　laws　of　morality。　Formed　to　live　in　society；　he　might　forget　his　fellow…creatures；　legislators　have　therefore　by　political　and　civil　laws　confined　him　to　his　duty。

2。　Of　the　Laws　of　Nature。　Antecedent　to　the　above…mentioned　laws　are　those　of　nature；　so　called；　because　they　derive　their　force　entirely　from　our　frame　and　existence。　In　order　to　have　a　perfect　knowledge　of　these　laws；　we　must　consider　man　before　the　establishment　of　society：　the　laws　received　in　such　a　state　would　be　those　of　nature。

The　law　which；　impressing　on　our　minds　the　idea　of　a　Creator；　inclines　us　towards　Him；　is　the　first　in　importance；　though　not　in　order；　of　natural　laws。　Man　in　a　state　of　nature　would　have　the　faculty　of　knowing；　before　he　had　acquired　any　knowledge。　Plain　it　is　that　his　first　ideas　would　not　be　of　a　speculative　nature；　he　would　think　of　the　preservation　of　his　being；　before　he　would　investigate　its　origin。　Such　a　man　would　feel　nothing　in　himself　at　first　but　impotency　and　weakness；　his　fears　and　apprehensions　would　be　excessive；　as　appears　from　instances　（were　there　any　necessity　of　proving　it）　of　savages　found　in　forests；＇2＇　trembling　at　the　motion　of　a　leaf；　and　flying　from　every　shadow。　

In　this　state　every　man；　instead　of　being　sensible　of　his　equality；　would　fancy　himself　inferior。　There　would　therefore　be　no　danger　of　their　attacking　one　another；　peace　would　be　the　first　law　of　nature。

The　natural　impulse　or　desire　which　Hobbes　attributes　to　mankind　of　subduing　one　another　is　far　from　being　well　founded。　The　idea　of　empire　and　dominion　is　so　complex；　and　depends　on　so　many　other　notions；　that　it　could　never　be　the　first　which　occurred　to　the　human　understanding。

Hobbes＇3＇　inquires；　〃For　what　reason　go　men　armed；　and　have　locks　and　keys　to　fasten　their　doors；　if　they　be　not　naturally　in　a　state　of　war？〃　But　is　it　not　obvious　that　he　attributes　to　mankind　before　the　establishment　of　society　what　can　happen　but　in　consequence　of　this　establishment；　which　furnishes　them　with　motives　for　hostile　attacks　and　self…defence？

Next　to　a　sense　of　his　weakness　man　would　soon　find　that　of　his　wants。　Hence　another　law　of　nature　would　prompt　him　to　seek　for　nourishment。

Fear；　I　have　observed；　would　induce　men　to　shun　one　another；　but　the　marks　of　this　fear　being　reciprocal；　would　soon　engage　them　to　associate。　Besides；　this　association　would　quickly　follow　from。　the　very　pleasure　one　animal　feels　at　the　approach　of　another　of　the　same　species。　Again；　the　attraction　arising　from　the　difference　of　sexes　would　enhance　this　pleasure；　and　the　natural　inclination　they　have　for　each　other　would　form　a　third　law。

Beside　the　sense　or　instinct　which　man　possesses　in　common　with　brutes；　he　has　the　advantage　of　acquired　knowledge；　and　thence　arises　a　second　tie；　which　brutes　have　not。　Mankind　have　therefore　a　new　motive　of　uniting；　and　a　fourth　law　of　nature　results　from　the　desire　of　living　in　society。

3。　Of　Positive　Laws。　As　soon　as　man　enters　into　a　state　of　society　he　loses　the　sense　of　his　weakness；　equality　ceases；　and　then　commences　the　state　of　war。

Each　particular　society　begins　to　feel　its　strength；　whence　arises　a　state　of　war　between　different　nations。　The　individuals　likewise　of　each　society　become　sensible　of　their　force；　hence　the　principal　advantages　of　this　society　they　endeavour　to　convert　to　their　own　emolument；　which　constitutes　a　state　of　war　between　individuals。

These　two　different　kinds　of　states　give　rise　to　human　laws。　Considered　as　inhabitants　of　so　great　a　planet；　which　necessarily　contains　a　variety　of　nations；　they　have　laws　relating　to　their　mutual　intercourse；　which　is　what　we　call　the　law　of　nations。　As　members　of　a　society　that　must　be　properly　supported；　they　have　laws　relating　to　the　governors　and　the　governed；　and　this　we　distinguish　by　the　name　of　politic　law。　They　have　also　another　sort　of　law；　as　they　stand　in　relation　to　each　other；　by　which　is　understood　the　civil　law。　

The　law　of　nations　is　naturally　founded　on　this　principle；　that　different　nations　ought　in　time　of　peace　to　do　one　another　all　the　good　they　can；　and　in　time　of　war　as　little　injury　as　possible；　without　prejudicing　their　real　interests。

The　object　of　war　is　victory；　that　of　victory　is　conquest；　and　that　of　conquest　preservation。　From　this　and　the　preceding　principle　all　those　rules　are　derived　which　constitute　the　law　of　nations。

All　countries　have　a　law　of　nations；　not　excepting　the　Iroquois　themselves；　though　they　devour　their　prisoners：　for　they　send　and　receive　ambassadors；　and　understand　the　rights　of　war　and　peace。　The　mischief　is　that　their　law　of　nations　is　not　founded　on　true　principles。

Besides　the　law　of　nations　relating　to　all　societies；　there　is　a　polity　or　civil　constitution　for　each　particularly　considered。　No　society　can　subsist　without　a　form　of　government。　〃The　united　strength　of　individuals；〃　as　Gravina＇4＇　well　observes；　〃constitutes　what　we　call　the　body　politic。〃

The　general　strength　may　be　in　the　hands　of　a　single　person；　or　of　many。　Some　think　that　nature　having　established　paternal　authority；　the　most　natural　government　was　that　of　a　single　person。　But　the　example　of　paternal　authority　proves　nothing。　For　if　the　power　of　a　father　relates　to　a　single　government；　that　of　brothers　after　the　death　of　a　father；　and　that　of　cousins…german　after　the　decease　of　brothers；　refer　to　a　government　of　many。　The　political　power　necessarily　comprehends　the　union　of　several　families。

Better　is　it　to　say；　that　the　government　most　conformable　to　nature　is　that　which　best　agrees　with　the　humour　and　disposition　of　the　people　in　whose　favour　it　is　established。

The　strength　of　individuals　cannot　be　united　without　a　conjunction　of　all　their　wills。　〃The　conjunction　of　those　wills；〃　as　Gravina　again　very　justly　observes；　〃is　what　we　call　the　civil　state。〃

Law　in　general　is　human　reason；　inasmuch　as　it　governs　all　the　inhabitants　of　the　earth：　the　political　and　civil　laws　of　each　nation　ought　to　be　only　the　particular　cases　in　which　human　reason　is　applied。

They　should　be　adapted　in　such　a　manner　to　the　people　for　whom　they　are　framed　that　it　should　be　a　great　chance　if　those　of　one　nation　suit　another。

They　should　be　in　relation　to　the　nature　and　principle　of　each　government；　whether　they　form　it；　as　may　be　said　of　politic　laws；　or　whether　they　support　it；　as　in　the　case　of　civil　institutions。

They　should　be　in　relation　to　the　climate　of　each　country；　to　the　quality　of　its　soil；　to　its　situation　and　extent；　to　the　principal　occupation　of　the　natives；　whether　husbandmen；　huntsmen；　or　shepherds：　they　should　have　relation　to　the　degree　of　liberty　which　the　constitution　will　bear；　to　the　religion　of　the　inhabitants；　to　their　inclinations；　riches；　numbers；　commerce；　manners；　and　customs。　In　fine；　they　have　relations　to　each　other；　as　also　to　their　origin；　to　the　intent　of　the　legislator；　and　to　the　order　of　things　on　which　they　are　established；　in　all　of　which　different　lights　they　ought　to　be　considered。　

This　is　what　I　have　undertaken　to　perform　in　the　following　work。　These　relations　I　shall　examine；　since　all　these　together　constitute　what　I　call　the　Spirit　of　Laws。　

I　have　not　separated　the　political　from　the　civil　institutions；　as　I　do　not　pretend　to　treat　of　laws；　but　of　their　spirit；　and　as　this　spirit　consists　in　the　various　relations　which　the　laws　may　bear　to　different　objects；　it　is　not　so　much　my　business　to　follow　the　natural　order　of　laws　as　that　of　these　relations　and　objects。　

I　shall　first　examine　the　relations　which　laws　bear　to　the　nature　and　principle　of　each　government；　and　as　this　principle　has　a　strong　influence　on　laws；　I　shall　make　it　my　study　to　understand　it　thoroughly：　and　if　I　can　but　once　establish　it；　the　laws　will　soon　appear　to　flow　thence　as　from　their　source。　I　shall　proceed　afterwa