the spirit of laws-第84部分

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　of　the　world。

The　viceroy　of　Goa　granted　exclusive　privileges　to　particular　persons。　The　people　had　no　confidence　in　these　men；　and　the　commerce　declined；　by　the　perpetual　change　of　those　to　whom　it　was　entrusted；　nobody　took　care　to　improve　it；　or　to　leave　it　entire　to　his　successor。　In　short；　the　profit　centred　in　a　few　hands；　and　was　not　sufficiently　extended。

21。　Of　the　Commerce　of　the　Nobility　in　a　Monarchy。　In　a　monarchical　government；　it　is　contrary　to　the　spirit　of　commerce　that　any　of　the　nobility　should　be　merchants。　〃This；〃　said　the　Emperors　Honorius　and　Theodosius；＇17＇　〃would　be　pernicious　to　cities；　and　would　remove　the　facility　of　buying　and　selling　between　the　merchants　and　the　plebeians。〃

It　is　contrary　to　the　spirit　of　monarchy　to　admit　the　nobility　into　commerce。　The　custom　of　suffering　the　nobility　of　England　to　trade　is　one　of　those　things　which　has　there　mostly　contributed　to　weaken　the　monarchical　government。

22。　A　singular　Reflection。　Persons　struck　with　the　practice　of　some　states　imagine　that　in　France　they　ought　to　make　laws　to　engage　the　nobility　to　enter　into　commerce。　But　these　laws　would　be　the　means　of　destroying　the　nobility；　without　being　of　any　advantage　to　trade。　The　practice　of　this　country　is　extremely　wise；　merchants　are　not　nobles；　though　they　may　become　so。　They　have　the　hopes　of　obtaining　a　degree　of　nobility；　unattended　with　its　actual　inconveniences。　There　is　no　surer　way　of　being　advanced　above　their　profession　than　to　manage　it　well；　or　with　success；　the　consequence　of　which　is　generally　an　affluent　fortune。

Laws　which　oblige　every　one　to　continue　in　his　profession；　and　to　devolve　it　upon　his　children；　neither　are　nor　can　be　of　use　in　any　but　despotic　kingdoms；　where　nobody　either　can　or　ought　to　have　emulation。＇18＇

Let　none　say　that　every　one　will　succeed　better　in　his　profession　when　he　cannot　change　it　for　another：　I　say　that　a　person　will　succeed　best　when　those　who　have　excelled　hope　to　rise　to　another。

The　possibility　of　purchasing　honour　with　gold　encourages　many　merchants　to　put　themselves　in　circumstances　by　which　they　may　attain　it。　I　do　not　take　it　upon　me　to　examine　the　justice　of　thus　bartering　for　money　the　price　of　virtue。　There　are　governments　where　this　may　be　very　useful。

In　France　the　dignity　of　the　long　robe；　which　places　those　who　wear　it　between　the　great　nobility　and　the　people；　and　without　having　such　shining　honours　as　the　former；　has　all　their　privileges；　a　dignity　which；　while　this　body；　the　depositary　of　the　laws；　is　encircled　with　glory；　leaves　the　private　members　in　a　mediocrity　of　fortune；　a　dignity　in　which　there　are　no　other　means　of　distinction　but　by　a　superior　capacity　and　virtue；　yet　which　still　leaves　in　view　one　much　more　illustrious：　the　warlike　nobility；　likewise；　who　conceive　that；　whatever　degree　of　wealth　they　are　possessed　of；　they　may　still　increase　their　fortunes；　who　are　ashamed　of　augmenting；　if　they　begin　not　with　dissipating；　their　estates；　who　always　serve　their　prince　with　their　whole　capital　stock；　and　when　that　is　sunk　make　room　for　others；　who　follow　their　example；　who　take　the　field　that　they　may　never　be　reproached　with　not　having　been　there；　who；　when　they　can　no　longer　hope　for　riches；　live　in　expectation　of　honours；　and　when　they　have　not　obtained　the　latter；　enjoy　the　consolation　of　having　acquired　glory：　all　these　things　together　have　necessarily　contributed　to　augment　the　grandeur　of　this　kingdom；　and　if　for　two　or　three　centuries　it　has　been　incessantly　increasing　in　power；　this　must　be　attributed　not　to　Fortune；　who　was　never　famed　for　constancy；　but　to　the　goodness　of　its　laws。

23。　To　what　Nations　Commerce　is　prejudicial。　Riches　consist　either　in　lands　or　in　movable　effects。　The　soil　of　every　country　is　commonly　possessed　by　the　natives。　The　laws　of　most　states　render　foreigners　unwilling　to　purchase　their　lands；　and　nothing　but　the　presence　of　the　owner　improves　them：　this　kind　of　riches；　therefore；　belongs　to　every　state　in　particular；　but　movable　effects；　as　money；　notes；　bills　of　exchange；　stocks　in　companies；　vessels；　and；　in　fine；　all　merchandise；　belong　to　the　whole　world　in　general；　in　this　respect；　it　is　composed　of　but　one　single　state；　of　which　all　the　societies　upon　earth　are　members。　The　people　who　possess　more　of　these　movable　effects　than　any　other　on　the　globe　are　the　most　opulent。　Some　states　have　an　immense　quantity　acquired　by　their　commodities；　by　the　labour　of　their　mechanics；　by　their　industry；　by　their　discoveries；　and　even　by　chance。　The　avarice　of　nations　makes　them　quarrel　for　the　movables　of　the　whole　universe。　If　we　could　find　a　state　so　unhappy　as　to　be　deprived　of　the　effects　of　other　countries；　and　at　the　same　time　of　almost　all　its　own；　the　proprietors　of　the　lands　would　be　only　planters　to　foreigners。　This　state；　wanting　all；　could　acquire　nothing；　therefore；　it　would　be　much　better　for　the　inhabitants　not　to　have　the　least　commerce　with　any　nation　upon　earth；　for　commerce　in　these　circumstances　must　necessarily　lead　them　to　poverty。

A　country　that　constantly　exports　fewer　manufactures　or　commodities　than　it　receives　will　soon　find　the　balance　sinking；　it　will　receive　less　and　less；　until；　falling　into　extreme　poverty；　it　will　receive　nothing　at　all。

In　trading　countries　the　specie；　which　suddenly　vanishes；　quickly　returns；　because　those　nations　that　have　received　it　are　its　debtors。　But　it　never　returns　into　those　states　of　which　we　have　just　been　speaking；　because　those　who　have　received　it　owe　them　nothing。

Poland　will　serve　us　for　an　example。　It　has　scarcely　any　of　those　things　which　we　call　the　movable　effects　of　the　universe；　except　corn；　the　produce　of　its　lands。　Some　of　the　lords　possess　entire　provinces；　they　oppress　the　husbandmen；　in　order　to　have　greater　quantities　of　corn；　which　they　send　to　strangers；　to　procure　the　superfluous　demands　of　luxury。　If　Poland　had　no　foreign　trade；　its　inhabitants　would　be　happier。　The　grandees；　who　would　have　only　their　corn；　would　give　it　to　their　peasants　for　subsistence；　as　their　too　extensive　estates　would　become　burdensome；　they　would　divide　them　among　their　peasants；　every　one　would　find　skins　or　wool　in　their　herds　or　flocks；　so　that　they　would　no　longer　be　at　an　immense　expense　in　providing　clothes；　the　great；　who　are　ever　fond　of　luxury；　not　being　able　to　find　it　but　in　their　own　country；　would　encourage　the　labour　of　the　poor。　This　nation；　I　affirm；　would　then　become　more　flourishing；　at　least　if　it　did　not　become　barbarous；　and　this　the　laws　might　easily　prevent。

Let　us　next　consider　Japan。　The　vast　quantity　of　what　they　receive　is　the　cause　of　the　vast　quantity　of　merchandise　they　send　abroad。　Things　are　thus　in　as　nice　an　equilibrium　as　if　the　importation　and　exportation　were　but　small。　Besides；　this　kind　of　exuberance　in　the　state　is　productive　of　a　thousand　advantages；　there　is　a　greater　consumption；　a　greater　quantity　of　those　things　on　which　the　arts　are　exercised；　more　men　employed；　and　more　numerous　means　of　acquiring　power；　exigencies　may　also　happen　that　require　a　speedy　assistance；　which　so　opulent　a　state　can　better　afford　than　any　other。　It　is　difficult　for　a　country　to　avoid　having　superfluities；　but　it　is　the　nature　of　commerce　to　render　the　superfluous　useful；　and　the　useful　necessary。　The　state　will　be；　therefore；　able　to　afford　necessaries　to　a　much　greater　number　of　subjects。

Let　us　say；　then；　that　it　is　not　those　nations　who　have　need　of　nothing　that　must　lose　by　trade；　it　is　those　who　have　need　of　everything。　It　is　not　such　people　as　have　a　sufficiency　within　themselves；　but　those　who　are　most　in　want；　that　will　find　an　advantage　in　putting　a　stop　to　all　commercial　intercourse。

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1。　C？sar　said　of　the　Gauls　that　they　were　spoiled　by　the　neighbourhood　and　commerce　of　Marseilles；　insomuch　that　they　who　formerly　always　conquered　the　Germans　had　now　become　inferior　to　them。　　De　Bello　Gall。；　vi。　23。

2。　Holland。

3。　Et　qui　modo　hospes　fuerat；　monstrator　hospitii。　　De　Moribus　Germanorum；　21。　See　C？sar；　De　Bello　Gall。　vi。　21。

4。　Tit。　38。

5。　Cicero；　De　Rep。；　iv。

6。　Justin；　xliii。　3。

7。　Father　Du　Halde；　ii；　p。　170。

8。　This　was　first　established　by　the　Portuguese。　　Pirard；　Voyages；　part　II；　15。

9。　Acts　of　Navigation；　1660。　It　is　only　in　time　of　war　that　the　merchants　of　Boston　and　Philadelphia　send　their　vessels　directly　to　the　Mediterranean。

10。　Published　in　Cadiz　in　March；　1740。

11。　Plutarch；　Against　Lending　Upon　Usury；　4。

12。　Diodorus；　i；　part　II；　79。

13。　The　Greek　legislators　were　to　blame　in　preventing　the　arms　and　plough　of　any　man　from　being　taken　in　pledge；　and　yet　permitting　the　taking　of　the　man　himself。　　Ibid。

14。　Hypotiposes；　i。　14。

15。　Laws；　viii。

16。　Zonaras。

17。　Leg。；　Nobiliores；　Cod。　de　Comm。；　Leg。　ult。　de　rescind；　vendit。

18。　This　is　actually　very　often　the　case　in　such　governments。




Book　XXI。　Of　Laws　in　relation　to　Commerce；　considered　in　the　Revolutions　it　has　met　with　in　the　World

1。　Some　general　Considerations。　Though　commerce　be　subject　to　great　revolutions；　yet　it　is　possible　that　certain　physical　causes；　as　the　quality　of　the　soil；　or　the　climate；　may　fix　its　nature　for　ever。

We　at　present　car