the spirit of laws-第88部分

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eside　elsewhere。

9。　Of　the　Commerce　of　the　Grecian　Kings　after　the　Death　of　Alexander。　At　the　time　when　Alexander　made　the　conquest　of　Egypt；　they　had　but　a　very　imperfect　idea　of　the　Red　Sea；　and　none　at　all　of　the　ocean；　which；　joining　this　sea；　on　one　side　washes　the　coast　of　Africa；　and　on　the　other　that　of　Arabia；　nay；　they　thought　it　impossible　to　sail　round　the　peninsula　of　Arabia。　They　who　attempted　it　on　each　side　had　relinquished　their　design。　〃How　is　it　possible；〃　said　they；＇48＇　〃to　navigate　to　the　southern　coast　of　Arabia；　when　Cambyses'　army；　which　traversed　it　on　the　north　side；　almost　entirely　perished；　and　the　forces　which　Ptolemy；　the　son　of　Lagus；　sent　to　the　assistance　of　Seleucus　Nicator　at　Babylon；　underwent　incredible　hardships；　and；　upon　account　of　the　heat；　could　march　only　in　the　night？〃

The　Persians　were　entire　strangers　to　navigation。　When　they　had　subdued　Egypt；　they　introduced　the　same　spirit　into　that　country　as　prevailed　in　Persia：　hence；　so　great　was　the　supineness　of　the　Persians　in　this　respect；　that　the　Grecian　kings　found　them　quite　strangers；　not　only　to　the　commerce　of　the　Tyrians；　Idumeans；　and　the　Jews　on　the　ocean；　but　even　to　the　navigation　of　the　Red　Sea。　I　am　apt　to　think　that　the　destruction　of　the　first　Tyre　by　Nebuchadnezzar；　together　with　the　subversion　of　several　petty　nations　and　towns　bordering　on　the　Red　Sea；　had　obliterated　all　their　former　knowledge　of　commerce。

Egypt；　at　the　time　of　the　Persian　monarchy；　did　not　front　the　Red　Sea；　it　contained　only　that　long　narrow　neck　of　land　which　the　Nile　covers　with　its　inundations；　and　is　enclosed　on　both　sides　by　a　chain　of　mountains。＇49＇　They　were；　therefore；　under　the　necessity　of　making　a　second　discovery　of　the　ocean　and　the　Red　Sea；　and　this　discovery　engaged　the　curiosity　of　the　Grecian　monarchs。

They　ascended　the　Nile；　and　hunted　after　elephants　in　the　countries　situated　between　that　river　and　the　sea；　by　this　progression　they　traced　the　sea…coast；　and　as　the　discoveries　were　made　by　the　Greeks；　the　names　are　all　Grecian；　and　the　temples　are　con…　secrated　to　Greek　divinities。＇50＇

The　Greeks　settled　in　Egypt　were　able　to　command　a　most　extensive　commerce；　they　were　masters　of　all　the　harbours　on　the　Red　Sea；　Tyre；　the　rival　of　every　trading　nation；　was　no　more；　they　were　not　constrained　by　the　ancient　superstitions＇51＇　on　the　country；　in　short；　Egypt　had　become　the　centre　of　the　world。

The　kings　of　Syria　left　the　commerce　of　the　south　to　those　of　Egypt；　and　attached　themselves　only　to　the　northern　trade；　which　was　carried　on　by　means　of　the　Oxus　and　the　Caspian　Sea。　They　then　imagined　that　this　sea　was　part　of　the　northern　ocean；　and　Alexander；＇52＇　some　time　before　his　death；　had　fitted　out　a　fleet＇53＇　in　order　to　discover　whether　it　communicated　with　the　ocean　by　the　Euxine　Sea；　or　some　other　eastern　sea　towards　India。　After　him；　Seleucus　and　Antiochus　applied　themselves　to　make　discoveries　in　it；　with　particular　attention；　and　with　this　view　they　scoured　it　with　their　fleets。＇54＇　That　part　which　Seleucus　surveyed　was　called　the　Seleucidian　Sea；　that　which　Antiochus　discovered　received　the　name　of　the　Sea　of　Antiochus。　Attentive　to　the　projects　they　might　have　formed　on　that　side；　they　neglected　the　seas　on　the　south；　whether　it　was　that　the　Ptolemies；　by　means　of　their　fleets　on　the　Red　Sea；　had　already　become　the　masters　of　it；　or　that　they　discovered　an　invincible　aversion　in　the　Persians　against　engaging　in　maritime　affairs。　The　southern　coasts　of　Persia　supplied　them　with　no　seamen；　there　had　been　none　in　those　parts；　except　towards　the　latter　end　of　Alexander's　reign。　But　the　Egyptian　kings；　being　masters　of　the　Isle　of　Cyprus；　of　Phoenicia；　and　of　a　great　number　of　towns　on　the　coast　of　Asia　Minor；　were　possessed　of　all　sorts　of　conveniences　for　undertaking　maritime　expeditions。　They　had　no　occasion　to　force；　they　had　only　to　follow　the　genius　and　bent　of　their　subjects。

I　am　surprised；　I　confess；　at　the　obstinacy　with　which　the　ancients　believed　that　the　Caspian　Sea　was　a　part　of　the　ocean。　The　expeditions　of　Alexander；　of　the　kings　of　Syria；　of　the　Parthians　and　the　Romans；　could　not　make　them　change　their　sentiments；　notwithstanding　these　nations　described　the　Caspian　Sea　with　wonderful　exactness：　but　men　are　generally　tenacious　of　their　errors。　When　only　the　south　of　this　sea　was　known；　it　was　at　first　taken　for　the　ocean；　in　proportion　as　they　advanced　along　the　banks　of　the　northern　coast；　instead　of　imagining　it　a　great　lake；　they　still　believed　it　to　be　the　ocean；　that　here　made　a　sort　of　bay：　surveying　the　coast；　their　discoveries　never　went　eastward　beyond　the　Jaxartes；　nor　westward　farther　than　the　extremity　of　Albania。　The　sea　towards　the　north　was　shallow；　and　of　course　very　unfit　for　navigation。＇55＇　Hence　it　was　that　they　always　looked　upon　this　as　the　ocean。

The　land　army　of　Alexander　had　been　in　the　east　only　as　far　as　the　Hypanis；　which　is　the　last　of　those　rivers　that　fall　into　the　Indus：　thus　the　first　trade　which　the　Greeks　carried　on　with　the　Indies　was　confined　to　a　very　small　part　of　the　country。　Seleucus　Nicator　penetrated　as　far　as　the　Ganges；　and　thereby　discovered　the　sea　into　which　this　river　falls；　that　is　to　say；　the　Bay　of　Bengal。＇56＇　The　moderns　discover　countries　by　voyages　at　sea；　the　ancients　discovered　seas　by　conquests　at　land。

Strabo；＇57＇　notwithstanding　the　testimony　of　Apollodorus；　seems　to　doubt　whether　the　Grecian　kings　of　Bactria　proceeded　farther　than　Seleucus　and　Alexander。＇58＇　Were　it　even　true　that　they　went　no　farther　to　the　east　than　Seleucus；　yet　they　went　farther　towards　the　south；　they　discovered　Siger；　and　the　ports　on　the　coast　of　Malabar；　which　gave　rise　to　the　navigation　I　am　going　to　mention。＇59＇

Pliny　informs　us　that　the　navigation　of　the　Indies　was　successively　carried　on　in　three　different　ways。＇60＇　At　first　they　sailed　from　the　Cape　of　Siagre　to　the　island　of　Patalena；　which　is　at　the　mouth　of　the　Indus。　This　we　find　was　the　course　that　Alexander's　fleet　steered　to　the　Indies。　They　took　afterwards　a　shorter　and　more　certain　course；　by　sailing　from　the　same　cape　or　promontory　to　Siger：＇61＇　this　can　be　no　other　than　the　kingdom　of　Siger　mentioned　by　Strabo；＇62＇　and　discovered　by　the　Grecian　kings　of　Bactria。　Pliny；　by　saying　that　this　way　was　shorter　than　the　other；　can　mean　only　that　the　voyage　was　made　in　less　time：　for；　as　Siger　was　discovered　by　the　kings　of　Bactria；　it　must　have　been　farther　than　the　Indus：　by　this　passage　they　must　therefore　have　avoided　the　winding　of　certain　coasts；　and　taken　advantage　of　particular　winds。　The　merchants　at　last　took　a　third　way；　they　sailed　to　Canes；　or　Ocelis；　ports　situated　at　the　entrance　of　the　Red　Sea；　whence　by　a　west　wind　they　arrived　at　Muziris；　the　first　staple　town　of　the　Indies；　and　thence　to　the　other　ports。　Here　we　see　that　instead　of　sailing　to　the　mouth　of　the　Red　Sea　as　far　as　Siagre；　by　coasting　Arabia　Felix　to　the　north…east；　they　steered　directly　from　west　to　east；　from　one　side　to　the　other；　by　means　of　the　monsoons；　whose　regular　course　they　discovered　by　sailing　in　these　latitudes。　The　ancients　never　lost　sight　of　the　coasts；　except　when　they　took　advantage　of　these　and　the　trade…winds；　which　were　to　them　a　kind　of　compass。＇63＇

Pliny＇64＇　says　that　they　set　sail　for　the　Indies　in　the　middle　of　summer　and　returned　towards　the　end　of　December；　or　in　the　beginning　of　January。　This　is　entirely　conformable　to　our　naval　journals。　In　that　part　of　the　Indian　Ocean　which　is　between　the　Peninsula　of　Africa；　and　that　on　this　side　the　Ganges；　there　are　two　monsoons；　the　first；　during　which　the　winds　blow　from　west　to　east；　begins　in　the　month　of　August　or　September；　and　the　second；　during　which　the　wind　is　in　the　east；　begins　in　January。　Thus　we　set　sail　from　Africa　for　Malabar　at　the　season　of　the　year　that　Ptolemy's　fleet　used　to　put　to　sea　thence；　and　we　return　too　at　the　same　time　as　they。

Alexander's　fleet　was　seven　months　in　sailing　from　Patala　to　Susa。　It　set　out　in　the　month　of　July；　that　is；　at　a　season　when　no　ship　dare　now　put　to　sea　to　return　from　the　Indies。　Between　these　two　monsoons　there　is　an　interval　during　which　the　winds　vary；　when　a　north　wind；　meeting　with　the　common　winds；　raises；　especially　near　the　coasts；　the　most　terrible　tempests。　These　continue　during　the　months　of　June；　July；　and　August。　Alexander's　fleet；　therefore；　setting　sail　from　Patala　in　the　month　of　July；　must　have　been　exposed　to　many　storms；　and　the　voyage　must　have　been　long；　because　they　sailed　against　the　monsoon。

Pliny　says　that　they　set　out　for　the　Indies　at　the　end　of　summer；　thus　they　spent　the　time　proper　for　taking　advantage　of　the　monsoon　in　their　passage　from　Alexandria　to　the　Red　Sea。

Observe　here；　I　pray；　how　navigation　has；　little　by　little；　arrived　at　perfection。　Darius's　fleet　was　two　years　and　a　half　in　falling　down　the　Indus　and　going　to　the　Red　Sea。＇65＇　Afterwards　the　fleet　of　Alexander；＇66＇　descending　the　Indus；　arrived　at　Susa；　in　ten　months；　having　sailed　three　months　on　the　Indus；　and　seven　on　the　Indian　Ocean；　at　last　the　passage　from　the　coast　of　Malabar　to　the　Red　Sea　was　made　in　forty　days。＇67＇

Strabo；＇68＇　who　accounts　for　their　ignorance　of　the　countries　between