the spirit of laws-第92部分

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ire　was　at　its　height；　and　had　received　its　whole　extension。

The　Romans　and　Parthians　were　two　rival　nations；　that　fought　not　for　dominion　but　for　their　very　existence。　Between　the　two　empires　deserts　were　formed　and　armies　were　always　stationed　on　the　frontiers；　so　that　instead　of　there　being　any　commerce；　there　was　not　so　much　as　communication　between　them。　Ambition；　jealousy；　religion；　national　antipathy；　and　difference　of　manners　completed　the　separation。　Thus　the　trade　from　east　to　west；　which　had　formerly　so　many　channels；　was　reduced　to　one；　and　Alexandria　becoming　the　only　staple；　the　trade　to　this　city　was　immensely　enlarged。

We　shall　say　but　one　word　of　their　inland　trade。　Its　principal　branch　was　the　corn　brought　to　Rome　for　the　subsistence　of　the　people；　but　this　was　rather　a　political　affair　than　a　point　of　commerce。　On　this　account　the　sailors　were　favoured　with　some　privileges；　because　the　safety　of　the　empire　depended　on　their　vigilance。＇128＇

17。　Of　Commerce　after　the　Destruction　of　the　Western　Empire。　After　the　invasion　of　the　Roman　empire　one　effect　of　the　general　calamity　was　the　destruction　of　commerce。　The　barbarous　nations　at　first　regarded　it　only　as　an　opportunity　for　robbery；　and　when　they　had　subdued　the　Romans；　they　honoured　it　no　more　than　agriculture；　and　the　other　professions　of　a　conquered　people。

Soon　was　the　commerce　of　Europe　almost　entirely　lost。　The　nobility；　who　had　everywhere　the　direction　of　affairs；　were　in　no　pain　about　it。

The　laws　of　the　Visigoths＇129＇　permitted　private　people　to　occupy　half　the　beds　of　great　rivers；　provided　the　other　half　remained　free　for　nets　and　boats。　There　must　have　been　very　little　trade　in　countries　conquered　by　these　barbarians。

In　those　times　were　established　the　ridiculous　rights　of　escheatage　and　shipwrecks。　These　men　thought　that；　as　strangers　were　not　united　to　them　by　any　civil　law；　they　owed　them　on　the　one　hand　no　kind　of　justice；　and　on　the　other　no　sort　of　pity。

In　the　narrow　bounds　which　nature　had　originally　prescribed　to　the　people　of　the　north；　all　were　strangers　to　them：　and　in　their　poverty　they　regarded　all　only　as　contributing　to　their　riches。　Being　established；　before　their　conquest；　on　the　coasts　of　a　sea　of　very　little　breadth；　and　full　of　rocks；　from　these　very　rocks　they　drew　their　subsistence。

But　the　Romans；　who　made　laws　for　all　the　world；　had　established　the　most　humane　ones　with　regard　to　shipwrecks。＇130＇　They　suppressed　the　rapine　of　those　who　inhabited　the　coasts；　and　what　was　more　still；　the　rapacity　of　their　treasuries。＇131＇

18。　A　particular　Regulation。　The　law　of　the　Visigoths　made；　however；　one　regulation　in　favour　of　commerce。＇132＇　It　ordained　that　foreign　merchants　should　be　judged；　in　the　differences　that　arose　among　themselves；　by　the　laws　and　by　judges　of　their　own　nation。　This　was　founded　on　an　established　custom　among　all　mixed　people；　that　every　man　should　live　under　his　own　law　　a　custom　of　which　I　shall　speak　more　at　large　in　another　place。

19。　Of　Commerce　after　the　Decay　of　the　Roman　Power　in　the　East。　The　Mahomedans　appeared；　conquered；　extended；　and　dispersed　themselves。　Egypt　had　particular　sovereigns；　these　carried　on　the　commerce　of　India；　and　being　possessed　of　the　merchandise　of　this　country；　drew　to　themselves　the　riches　of　all　other　nations。　The　sultans　of　Egypt　were　the　most　powerful　princes　of　those　times。　History　informs　us　with　what　a　constant　and　well…regulated　force　they　stopped　the　ardour；　the　fire；　and　the　impetuosity　of　the　crusades。

20。　How　Commerce　broke　through　the　Barbarism　of　Europe。　Aristotle's　philosophy　being　carried　to　the　west；　pleased　the　subtle　geniuses　who　were　the　virtuosi　of　those　times　of　ignorance。　The　schoolmen　were　infatuated　with　it；　and　borrowed　from　that　philosopher＇133＇　a　great　many　notions　on　lending　upon　interest；　whereas　its　source　might　have　been　easily　traced　in　the　gospel；　in　short；　they　condemned　it　absolutely　and　in　all　cases。　Hence　commerce；　which　was　the　profession　only　of　mean　persons；　became　that　of　knaves；　for　whenever　a　thing　is　forbidden；　which　nature　permits　or　necessity　requires；　those　who　do　it　are　looked　upon　as　dishonest。

Commerce　was　transferred　to　a　nation　covered　with　infamy；　and　soon　ranked　with　the　most　shameful　usury；　with　monopolies；　with　the　levying　of　subsidies；　and　with　all　the　dishonest　means　of　acquiring　wealth。

The　Jews；　enriched　by　their　exactions；　were　pillaged　by　the　tyranny　of　princes；　which　pleased　indeed；　but　did　not　ease；　the　people。＇134＇

What　passed　in　England　may　serve　to　give　us　an　idea　of　what　was　done　in　other　countries。　King　John＇135＇　having　imprisoned　the　Jews；　in　order　to　obtain　their　wealth；　there　were　few　who　had　not　at　least　one　of　their　eyes　plucked　out。　Thus　did　that　king　administer　justice。　A　certain　Jew；　who　had　a　tooth　pulled　out　every　day　for　seven　days　successively；　gave　ten　thousand　marks　of　silver　for　the　eighth。　Henry　III　extorted　from　Aaron；　a　Jew　at　York；　fourteen　thousand　marks　of　silver；　and　ten　thousand　for　the　queen；　in　those　times　they　did　by　violence　what　is　now　done　in　Poland　with　some　semblance　of　moderation。　As　princes　could　not　dive　into　the　purses　of　their　subjects　because　of　their　privileges；　they　put　the　Jews　to　the　torture；　who　were　not　considered　as　citizens。

At　last　a　custom　was　introduced　of　confiscating　the　effects　of　those　Jews　who　embraced　Christianity。　This　ridiculous　custom　is　known　only　by　the　law　which　suppressed　it。＇136＇　The　most　vain　and　trifling　reasons　were　given　in　justification　of　that　proceeding；　it　was　alleged　that　it　was　proper　to　try　them；　in　order　to　be　certain　that　they　had　entirely　shaken　off　the　slavery　of　the　devil。　But　it　is　evident　that　this　confiscation　was　a　species　of　the　right　of　amortisation；　to　recompense　the　prince；　or　the　lords；　for　the　taxes　levied　on　the　Jews；　which　ceased　on　their　embracing　Christianity。＇137＇　In　those　times；　men；　like　lands；　were　regarded　as　property。　I　cannot　help　remarking；　by　the　way；　how　this　nation　has　been　sported　with　from　one　age　to　another：　at　one　time；　their　effects　were　confiscated　when　they　were　willing　to　become　Christians；　and　at　another；　if　they　refused　to　turn　Christians；　they　were　ordered　to　be　burned。

In　the　meantime；　commerce　was　seen　to　arise　from　the　bosom　of　vexation　and　despair。　The　Jews；　proscribed　by　turns　from　every　country；　found　out　the　way　of　saving　their　effects。　Thus　they　rendered　their　retreats　for　ever　fixed；　for　though　princes　might　have　been　willing　to　get　rid　of　their　persons；　yet　they　did　not　choose　to　get　rid　of　their　money。

The　Jews　invented　letters　of　exchange；＇138＇　commerce；　by　this　method；　became　capable　of　eluding　violence；　and　of　maintaining　everywhere　its　ground；　the　richest　merchant　having　none　but　invisible　effects；　which　he　could　convey　imperceptibly　wherever　he　pleased。

The　Theologians　were　obliged　to　limit　their　principles；　and　commerce；　which　they　had　before　connected　by　main　force　with　knavery；　reentered；　if　I　may　so　express　myself；　the　bosom　of　probity。

Thus　we　owe　to　the　speculations　of　the　schoolmen　all　the　misfortunes　which　accompanied　the　destruction　of　commerce；＇139＇　and　to　the　avarice　of　princes；　the　establishment　of　a　practice　which　puts　it　in　some　measure　out　of　their　power。

From　this　time　it　became　necessary　that　princes　should　govern　with　more　prudence　than　they　themselves　could　ever　have　imagined；　for　great　exertions　of　authority　were；　in　the　event；　found　to　be　impolitic；　and　from　experience　it　is　manifest　that　nothing　but　the　goodness　and　lenity　of　a　government　can　make　it　flourish。

We　begin　to　be　cured　of　Machiavelism；　and　recover　from　it　every　day。　More　moderation　has　become　necessary　in　the　councils　of　princes。　What　would　formerly　have　been　called　a　master…stroke　in　politics　would　be　now；　independent　of　the　horror　it　might　occasion；　the　greatest　imprudence。

Happy　is　it　for　men　that　they　are　in　a　situation　in　which；　though　their　passions　prompt　them　to　be　wicked；　it　is；　nevertheless；　to　their　interest　to　be　humane　and　virtuous。

21。　The　Discovery　of　two　new　Worlds；　and　in　what　Manner　Europe　is　affected　by　it。　The　compass　opened；　if　I　may　so　express　myself；　the　universe。　Asia　and　Africa　were　found；　of　which　only　some　borders　were　known；　and　America；　of　which　we　knew　nothing。

The　Portuguese；　sailing　on　the　Atlantic　Ocean；　discovered　the　most　southern　point　of　Africa；　they　saw　a　vast　sea；　which　carried　them　to　the　East　Indies。　Their　danger　upon　this　sea；　the　discovery　of　Mozambique；　Melinda；　and　Calicut；　have　been　sung　by　Camoens；　whose　poems　make　us　feel　something　of　the　charms　of　the　Odyssey　and　the　magnificence　of　the　？neid。

The　Venetians　had　hitherto　carried　on　the　trade　of　the　Indies　through　the　Turkish　dominions；　and　pursued　it　in　the　midst　of　oppressions　and　discouragements。　By　the　discovery　of　the　Cape　of　Good　Hope；　and　those　which　were　made　some　time　after；　Italy　was　no　longer　the　centre　of　the　trading　world；　it　was；　if　I　may　be　permitted　the　expression；　only　a　corner　of　the　universe；　and　is　so　still。　The　commerce　even　of　the　Levant　depending　now　on　that　of　the　great　trading　nations　to　both　the　Indies；　Italy　even　in　that　branch　can　no　longer　be　considered　as　a　principal。

The　Portuguese　traded　to　the　Indies　in