the spirit of laws-第93部分

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in　that　branch　can　no　longer　be　considered　as　a　principal。

The　Portuguese　traded　to　the　Indies　in　right　of　conquest。　The　constraining　laws　which　the　Dutch　at　present　impose　on　the　commerce　of　the　little　Indian　princes　had　been　established　before　by　the　Portuguese。＇140＇

The　fortune　of　the　house　of　Austria　was　prodigious。　Charles　V　succeeded　to　the　possession　of　Burgundy；　Castile；　and　Aragon；　he　arrived　afterwards　at　the　imperial　dignity；　and　to　procure　him　a　new　kind　of　grandeur；　the　globe　extended　itself；　and　there　was　seen　a　new　world　paying　him　obeisance。

Christopher　Columbus　discovered　America；　and　though　Spain　sent　thither　only　a　force　so　small　that　the　least　prince　in　Europe　could　have　sent　the　same；　yet　it　subdued　two　vast　empires；　and　other　great　states。

While　the　Spaniards　discovered　and　conquered　the　west；　the　Portuguese　pushed　their　conquests　and　discoveries　in　the　east。　These　two　nations　met　each　other；　they　had　recourse　to　Pope　Alexander　VI；　who　made　the　celebrated　line　of　partition；　and　determined　the　great　suit。

But　the　other　nations　of　Europe　would　not　suffer　them　quietly　to　enjoy　their　shares。　The　Dutch　chased　the　Portuguese　from　almost　all　their　settlements　in　the　East　Indies；　and　several　other　nations　planted　colonies　in　America。

The　Spaniards　considered　these　newly…discovered　countries　as　the　subject　of　conquest；　while　others；　more　refined　in　their　views；　found　them　to　be　the　proper　subjects　of　commerce；　and　upon　this　principle　directed　their　proceedings。　Hence　several　nations　have　conducted　themselves　with　so　much　wisdom　that　they　have　given　a　kind　of　sovereignty　to　companies　of　merchants；　who；　governing　these　far…distant　countries　only　with　a　view　to　trade；　have　made　a　great　accessory　power　without　embarrassing　the　principal　state。

The　colonies　they　have　formed　are　under　a　kind　of　dependence；　of　which　there　are　but　very　few　instances　in　all　the　colonies　of　the　ancients；　whether　we　consider　them　as　holdings　of　the　state　itself；　or　of　some　trading　company　established　in　the　state。

The　design　of　these　colonies　is　to　trade　on　more　advantageous　conditions　than　could　otherwise　be　done　with　the　neighbouring　people；　with　whom　all　advantages　are　reciprocal。　It　has　been　established　that　the　metropolis；＇141＇　or　mother　country；　alone　shall　trade　in　the　colonies；　and　that　from　very　good　reason；　because　the　design　of　the　settlement　was　the　extension　of　commerce；　not　the　foundation　of　a　city　or　of　a　new　empire。

Thus　it　is　still　a　fundamental　law　of　Europe　that　all　commerce　with　a　foreign　colony　shall　be　regarded　as　a　mere　monopoly；　punishable　by　the　laws　of　the　country；　and　in　this　case　we　are　not　to　be　directed　by　the　laws　and　precedents　of　the　ancients；　which　are　not　at　all　applicable。＇142＇

It　is　likewise　acknowledged　that　a　commerce　established　between　the　mother　countries　does　not　include　a　permission　to　trade　in　the　colonies；　for　these　always　continue　in　a　state　of　prohibition。

The　disadvantage　of　a　colony　that　loses　the　liberty　of　commerce　is　visibly　compensated　by　the　protection　of　the　mother　country；　who　defends　it　by　her　arms；　or　supports　it　by　her　laws。

Hence　follows　a　third　law　of　Europe；　that　when　a　foreign　commerce　with　a　colony　is　prohibited；　it　is　not　lawful　to　trade　in　those　seas；　except　in　such　cases　as　are　excepted　by　treaty。　Nations　who　are；　with　respect　to　the　whole　globe；　what　individuals　are　in　a　state；　are　governed　like　the　latter　by　the　laws　of　nature；　and　by　particular　laws　of　their　own　making。　One　nation　may　resign　to　another　the　sea；　as　well　as　the　land。　The　Carthaginians　forbade　the　Romans　to　sail　beyond　certain　limits；＇143＇　as　the　Greeks　had　obliged　the　King　of　Persia　to　keep　as　far　distant　from　the　sea…coast　as　a　horse　could　gallop。＇144＇

The　great　distance　of　our　colonies　is　not　an　inconvenience　that　affects　their　safety；　for　if　the　mother　country；　on　whom　they　depend　for　their　defence；　is　remote；　no　less　remote　are　those　nations　who　rival　the　mother　country；　and　by　whom　they　may　be　afraid　of　being　conquered。

Besides；　this　distance　is　the　cause　that　those　who　are　established　there　cannot　conform　to　the　manner　of　living　in　a　climate　so　different　from　their　own；　they　are　obliged　therefore　to　draw　from　the　mother　country　all　the　conveniences　of　life。　The　Carthaginians；＇145＇　to　render　the　Sardinians　and　Corsicans　more　dependent；　forbade　their　planting；　sowing；　or　doing　anything　of　the　kind；　under　pain　of　death；　so　that　they　supplied　them　with　necessaries　from　Africa。

The　Europeans　have　compassed　the　same　thing；　without　having　recourse　to　such　severe　laws。　Our　colonies　in　the　Caribbean　islands　are　under　an　admirable　regulation　in　this　respect；　the　subject　of　their　commerce　is　what　we　neither　have　nor　can　produce；　and　they　want　what　is　the　subject　of　ours。

A　consequence　of　the　discovery　of　America　was　the　connecting　Asia　and　Africa　with　Europe；　it　furnished　materials　for　a　trade　with　that　vast　part　of　Asia　known　by　the　name　of　the　East　Indies。　Silver；　that　metal　so　useful　as　the　medium　of　commerce；　became　now　as　merchandise　the　basis　of　the　greatest　commerce　in　the　world。　In　fine；　the　navigation　to　Africa　became　necessary　in　order　to　furnish　us　with　men　to　labour　in　the　mines；　and　to　cultivate　the　lands　of　America。

Europe　has　arrived　at　so　high　a　degree　of　power　that　nothing　in　history　can　be　compared　with　it；　whether　we　consider　the　immensity　of　its　expenses；　the　grandeur　of　its　engagements；　the　number　of　its　troops；　and　the　regular　payments　even　of　those　that　are　least　serviceable；　and　which　are　kept　only　for　ostentation。

Father　Du　Halde　says＇146＇　that　the　interior　trade　of　China　is　much　greater　than　that　of　all　Europe。　That　might　be；　if　our　foreign　trade　did　not　augment　our　inland　commerce。　Europe　carries　on　the　trade　and　navigation　of　the　other　three　parts　of　the　world；　as　France；　England；　and　Holland　do　nearly　that　of　Europe。

22。　Of　the　Riches　which　Spain　drew　from　America。　If　Europe　has　derived　so　many　advantages　from　the　American　trade；　it　seems　natural　to　imagine　that　Spain　must　have　derived　much　greater。＇147＇　She　drew　from　the　newly…　discovered　world　so　prodigious　a　quantity　of　gold　and　silver；　that　all　we　had　before　could　not　be　compared　with　it。

But　（what　one　could　never　have　expected）　this　great　kingdom　was　everywhere　baffled　by　its　misfortunes。　Philip　II；　who　succeeded　Charles　V；　was　obliged　to　make　the　celebrated　bankruptcy　known　to　all　the　world。　There　never　was　a　prince　who　suffered　more　from　the　murmurs；　the　insolence；　and　the　revolt　of　troops　constantly　ill…paid。

From　that　time　the　monarchy　of　Spain　has　been　incessantly　declining。　This　has　been　owing　to　an　interior　and　physical　defect　in　the　nature　of　those　riches；　which　renders　them　vain　　a　defect　which　increases　every　day。

Gold　and　silver　are　either　a　fictitious　or　a　representative　wealth。　The　representative　signs　of　wealth　are　extremely　durable；　and；　in　their　own　nature；　but　little　subject　to　decay。　But　the　more　they　are　multiplied；　the　more　they　lose　their　value；　because　the　fewer　are　the　things　which　they　represent。

The　Spaniards；　after　the　conquest　of　Mexico　and　Peru；　abandoned　their　natural　riches；　in　pursuit　of　a　representative　wealth　which　daily　degraded　itself。　Gold　and　silver　were　extremely　scarce　in　Europe；　and　Spain　becoming　all　of　a　sudden　mistress　of　a　prodigious　quantity　of　these　metals；　conceived　hopes　to　which　she　had　never　before　aspired。　The　wealth　she　found　in　the　conquered　countries；　great　as　it　was；　did　not；　however；　equal　that　of　their　mines。　The　Indians　concealed　part　of　it；　and　besides；　these　people；　who　made　no　other　use　of　gold　and　silver　than　to　give　magnificence　to　the　temples　of　their　gods　and　to　the　palaces　of　their　kings；　sought　not　for　it　with　an　avarice　like　ours。　In　short；　they　had　not　the　secret　of　drawing　these　metals　from　every　mine；　but　only　from　those　in　which　the　separation　might　be　made　with　fire：　they　were　strangers　to　the　manner　of　making　use　of　mercury；　and　perhaps　to　mercury　itself。

However；　it　was　not　long　before　the　specie　of　Europe　was　doubled；　this　appeared　from　the　price　of　commodities；　which　everywhere　was　doubled。

The　Spaniards　raked　into　the　mines；　scooped　out　mountains；　invented　machines　to　draw　out　water；　to　break　the　ore；　and　separate　it；　and　as　they　sported　with　the　lives　of　the　Indians；　they　forced　them　to　labour　without　mercy。　The　specie　of　Europe　soon　doubled；　and　the　profit　of　Spain　diminished　in　the　same　proportion；　they　had　every　year　the　same　quantity　of　metal；　which　had　become　by　one…half　less　precious。

In　double　the　time　the　specie　still　doubled；　and　the　profit　still　diminished　another　half。

It　diminished　even　more　than　half：　let　us　see　in　what　manner。

To　extract　the　gold　from　the　mines；　to　give　it　the　requisite　preparations；　and　to　import　it　into　Europe；　must　be　attended　with　some　certain　expense。　I　will　suppose　this　to　be　as　1　to　64。　When　the　specie　was　once　doubled；　and　consequently　became　by　one…half　less　precious；　the　expense　was　as　2　to　64。　Thus　the　galoons　which　brought　to　Spain　the　same　quantity　of　gold；　brought　a　thing　which　really　was　of　less　value　by　one…half；　though　the　expenses　attending　it　had　been　twice　as　high。

If　we　proceed　doubling　and　doubling；　we　shall　find　in　this　prog