the spirit of laws-第96部分

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ation　whose　demands　are　the　fewest；　without　which　the　latter　would　be　under　an　impossibility　of　balancing　its　accounts。

2。　Of　the　Nature　of　Money。　Money　is　a　sign　which　represents　the　value　of　all　merchandise。　Metal　is　taken　for　this　sign；　as　being　durable；＇1＇　because　it　is　consumed　but　little　by　use；　and　because；　without　being　destroyed；　it　is　capable　of　many　divisions。　A　precious　metal　has　been　chosen　as　a　sign；　as　being　most　portable。　A　metal　is　most　proper　for　a　common　measure；　because　it　can　be　easily　reduced　to　the　same　standard。　Every　state　fixes　upon　it　a　particular　impression；　to　the　end　that　the　form　may　correspond　with　the　standard　and　the　weight；　and　that　both　may　be　known　by　inspection　only。　The　Athenians；　not　having　the　use　of　metals；　made　use　of　oxen；＇2＇　and　the　Romans　of　sheep；　but　one　ox　is　not　the　same　as　another　ox　in　the　manner　that　one　piece　of　metal　may　be　the　same　as　another。

A　specie　is　the　sign　of　the　value　of　merchandise；　paper　is　the　sign　of　the　value　of　specie；　and　when　it　is　of　the　right　sort；　it　represents　this　value　in　such　a　manner　that　as　to　the　effects　produced　by　it　there　is　not　the　least　difference。

In　the　same　manner；　as　money　is　the　sign　and　representative　of　a　thing；　everything　is　a　sign　and　representative　of　money；　and　the　state　is　in　a　prosperous　condition　when　on　the　one　hand　money　perfectly　represents　all　things；　and　on　the　other　all　things　perfectly　represent　money；　and　are　reciprocally　the　sign　of　each　other；　that　is；　when　they　have　such　a　relative　value　that　we　may　have　the　one　as　soon　as　we　have　the　other。　This　never　happens　in　any　other　than　a　moderate　government；　nor　does　it　always　happen　there；　for　example；　if　the　laws　favour　the　dishonest　debtor；　his　effects　are　no　longer　a　representative　or　sign　of　money。　With　regard　to　a　despotic　government；　it　would　be　a　prodigy　did　things　there　represent　their　sign。　Tyranny　and　distrust　make　every　one　bury　their　specie；＇3＇　things　therefore　are　not　there　the　representative　of　money。

Legislators　have　sometimes　had　the　art　not　only　to　make　things　in　their　own　nature　the　representative　of　specie；　but　to　convert　them　even　into　specie；　like　the　current　coin。　C？sar；　when　he　was　dictator；　permitted　debtors　to　give　their　lands　in　payment　to　their　creditors；　at　the　price　they　were　worth　before　the　civil　war。＇4＇　Tiberius　ordered　that　those　who　desired　specie　should　have　it　from　the　public　treasury　on　binding　over　their　land　to　double　the　value＇5＇　Under　C？sar　the　lands　were　the　money　which　paid　all　debts；　under　Tiberius　ten　thousand　sesterces　in　land　became　as　current　money　equal　to　five　thousand　sesterces　in　silver。　The　Magna　Charta　of　England　provides　against　the　seizing　of　the　lands　or　revenues　of　a　debtor；　when　his　movable　or　personal　goods　are　sufficient　to　pay；　and　he　is　willing　to　give　them　up　to　his　creditors；　thus　all　the　goods　of　an　Englishman　represent　money。

The　laws　of　the　Germans　constituted　money　a　satisfaction　for　the　injuries　that　were　committed；　and　for　the　sufferings　due　to　guilt。　But　as　there　was　but　very　little　specie　in　the　country；　they　again　constituted　this　money　to　be　paid　in　goods　or　chattels。　This　we　find　appointed　in　a　Saxon　law；　with　certain　regulations　suitable　to　the　ease　and　convenience　of　the　several　ranks　of　people。　At　first　the　law　declared　the　value　of　a　sou　in　cattle；＇6＇　the　sou　of　two　tremises　answered　to　an　ox　of　twelve　months；　or　to　a　ewe　with　her　lamb；　that　of　three　tremises　was　worth　an　ox　of　sixteen　months。　With　these　people　money　became　cattle；　goods；　and　merchandise；　and　these　again　became　money。

Money　is　not　only　a　sign　of　things；　it　is　also　a　sign　and　representative　of　money；　as　we　shall　see　in　the　chapter　on　exchange。

3。　Of　ideal　Money。　There　is　both　real　and　ideal　money。　Civilised　nations　generally　make　use　of　ideal　money　only；　because　they　have　converted　their　real　money　into　ideal。　At　first　their　real　money　was　some　metal　of　a　certain　weight　and　standard；　but　soon　dishonesty　or　want　made　them　retrench　a　part　of　the　metal　from　every　piece　of　money；　to　which　they　left　the　same　name；　for　example；　from　a　livre　at　a　pound　weight　they　took　half　the　silver；　and　still　continued　to　call　it　a　livre；　the　piece　which　was　the　twentieth　part　of　a　pound　of　silver　they　continued　to　call　a　sou；　though　it　is　no　more　the　twentieth　part　of　this　pound　of　silver。　By　this　method　the　livre　is　an　ideal　livre；　and　the　sou　an　ideal　sou。　Thus　of　the　other　subdivisions；　and　so　far　may　this　be　carried　that　what　we　call　a　livre　shall　be　only　a　small　part　of　the　original　livre　or　pound；　which　renders　it　still　more　ideal。　It　may　even　happen　that　we　have　no　piece　of　money　of　the　precise　value　of　a　livre；　nor　any　piece　exactly　with　a　sou；　then　the　livre　and　the　sou　will　be　purely　ideal。　They　may　give　to　any　piece　of　money　the　denomination　of　as　many　livres　and　as　many　sous　as　they　please；　the　variation　may　be　continual；　because　it　is　as　easy　to　give　another　name　to　a　thing　as　it　is　difficult　to　change　the　thing　itself。

To　take　away　the　source　of　this　abuse；　it　would　be　an　excellent　law　for　all　countries　who　are　desirous　of　making　commerce　flourish　to　ordain　that　none　but　real　money　should　be　current；　and　to　prevent　any　methods　from　being　taken　to　render　it　ideal。

Nothing　ought　to　be　so　exempt　from　variation　as　that　which　is　the　common　measure　of　all。　Trade　is　in　its　own　nature　extremely　uncertain；　and　it　is　a　great　evil　to　add　a　new　uncertainty　to　that　which　is　founded　on　the　nature　of　the　thing。

4。　Of　the　Quantity　of　Gold　and　Silver。　While　civilised　nations　are　the　mistresses　of　the　world；　gold　and　silver；　whether　they　draw　it　from　among　themselves；　or　fetch　it　from　the　mines；　must　increase　every　day。　On　the　contrary；　it　diminishes　when　barbarous　nations　prevail。　We　know　how　great　was　the　scarcity　of　these　metals　when　the　Goths　and　Vandals　on　the　one　side；　and　on　the　other　the　Saracens　and　Tartars；　broke　in　like　a　torrent　on　the　civilised　world。

5。　The　same　Subject　continued。　The　bullion　drawn　from　the　American　mines；　imported　into　Europe；　and　thence　sent　to　the　East；　has　greatly　promoted　the　navigation　of　the　European　nations；　for　it　is　merchandise　which　Europe　receives　in　exchange　from　America；　and　which　she　sends　in　exchange　to　the　Indies。　A　prodigious　quantity　of　gold　and　silver　is　therefore　an　advantage；　when　we　consider　these　metals　as　merchandise；　but　it　is　otherwise　when　we　consider　them　as　a　sign；　because　their　abundance　gives　an　alloy　to　their　quality　as　a　sign；　which　is　chiefly　founded　on　their　scarcity。

Before　the　first　Punic　war；＇7＇　copper　was　to　silver　as　960　to　1；＇8＇　it　is　at　present　nearly　as　731/2　to　1。　When　the　proportion　shall　be　as　it　was　formerly；　silver　will　better　perform　its　office　as　a　sign。

6。　The　Reason　why　Interest　was　lowered　one…half　after　the　Conquest　of　the　Indies。　Garcilasso　informs　us＇9＇　that　in　Spain　after　the　conquest　of　the　Indies　the　interest；　which　was　at　ten　per　cent；　fell　to　five。　This　was　a　necessary　consequence。　A　great　quantity　of　specie　being　all　of　a　sudden　brought　into　Europe；　much　fewer　persons　had　need　of　money。　The　price　of　all　things　increased；　while　the　value　of　money　diminished；　the　proportion　was　then　broken；　and　all　the　old　debts　were　discharged。　We　may　recollect　the　time　of　the　System；＇10＇　when　everything　was　at　a　high　price　except　specie。　Those　who　had　money　after　the　conquest　of　the　Indies　were　obliged　to　lower　the　price　or　hire　of　their　merchandise；　that　is；　in　other　words；　their　interest。

From　this　time　they　were　unable　to　bring　interest　to　its　ancient　standard；　because　the　quantity　of　specie　brought　to　Europe　has　been　annually　increasing。　Besides；　as　the　public　funds　of　some　states；　founded　on　riches　procured　by　commerce；　gave　but　a　very　small　interest；　it　became　necessary　for　the　contracts　of　individuals　to　be　regulated　by　these。　In　short；　the　course　of　exchange　having　rendered　the　conveying　of　specie　from　one　country　to　another　remarkably　easy；　money　cannot　be　scarce　in　a　place　where　they　may　be　so　readily　supplied　with　it　by　those　who　have　it　in　plenty。

7。　How　the　Price　of　Things　is　fixed　in　the　Variation　of　the　Sign　of　Riches。　Money　is　the　price　of　merchandise　or　manufactures。　But　how　shall　we　fix　this　price？　or；　in　other　words；　by　what　piece　of　money　is　everything　to　be　represented？

If　we　compare　the　mass　of　gold　and　silver　in　the　whole　world　with　the　quantity　of　merchandise　therein　contained；　it　is　certain　that　every　commodity　or　merchandise　in　particular　may　be　compared　to　a　certain　portion　of　the　entire　mass　of　gold　and　silver。　As　the　total　of　the　one　is　to　the　total　of　the　other；　so　part　of　the　one　will　be　to　part　of　the　other。　Let　us　suppose　that　there　is　only　one　commodity　or　merchandise　in　the　world；　or　only　one　to　be　purchased；　and　that　this　is　divisible　like　money；　a　part　of　this　merchandise　will　answer　to　a　part　of　the　mass　of　gold　and　silver；　the　half　of　the　total　of　the　one　to　the　half　of　the　total　of　the　other；　the　tenth；　the　hundredth；　the　thousandth　part　of　the　one；　to　the　tenth；　the　hundredth；　the　thousandth　part　of　the　other。　But　as　that　which　constitutes　property　among　mankind　is　not　all　at　once　in　trade；　and　as　the　metals　or　money　which　are　the　sign　of　property　are　not　all　in　trade　at　the　same　time；　the　price　is　fi