political economy-第13部分

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　for　labour；　and　who　thinks　only　of　enjoyment。　The　national　interest；　however。　sometimes　also　requires　that　property　itself　shall　pass　into　hands　likely　to　make　a　better　use　of　it。　It　is　not　for　themselves　alone　that　the　rich　elicit　the　fruits　of　the　earth；　it　is　for　the　whole　nation；　and　if；　by　a　derangement　in　their　fortune；　they　suspend　the　productive　power　of　the　country；　it　concerns　the　whole　nation　to　put　their　property　under　different　managers。　Personal　interest　is；　indeed；　sufficient　to　bring　about　this　transmission；　provided　the　law　offers　no　obstacle。　When　a　soldier　comes　to　inherit　a　machine　for　making　stockings；　he　does　not　keep　it　long；　in　his　hands；　the　machine　is　useless　for　himself　and　the　nation；　in　the　hands　of　a　stocking…maker　it　would　be　productive；　both　for　the　nation　and　the　individual。　Both　feel　this；　and　a　bargain　is　soon　struck。　The　soldier　receives　money；　which　he　well　knows　how　to　employ；　the　stocking…maker　receives　possession　of　his　frame；　and　production　recommences。　Most　of　our　European　laws　respecting　immovable　property；　are　like　a　law　made　to　hinder　the　soldier　from　parting　with　the　frame；　of　whose　use　he　is　ignorant。　　　　　The　value　of　land　cannot　be　unfolded；　except　by　employing　a　capital　sufficient　to　procure　the　accumulation　of　that　labour　which　improves　it。　Hence；　it　is　essential　to　the　very　existence　of　a　nation　that　its　land　be　always　in　the　hands　of　those　who　can　devote　capital　to　its　cultivation。　If　it　were　not　in　any　case　allowed　to　sell　a　workman's　implement；　it　would　not；　certainly；　at　least；　be　forbidden　to　make　new　ones　for　the　use　of　new　workmen；　but　new　lands　cannot　be　made；　and　so　often　as　the　law　prevents　the　alienation　of　an　estate　by　one　that　cannot　use　it；　so　often　does　it　suspend　the　most　essential　of　all　productions。　　　　　The　systems　of　cultivation；　which　we　have　now　glanced　over　in　review；　certainly　cause　the　earth　to　produce；　by　the　hands　of　temporary　cultivators；　when　the　permanent　advances　have　been　made；　but　they　absolutely　discourage　such　cultivators　from　making　those　permanent　advances　which；　as　they　give　a　perpetual　value　to　property；　cannot　be　laid　out　except　by　those　with　whom　that　property　is　destined　to　continue。　Legislators　in　general；　altogether　occupied　with　preventing　the　alienation　of　immovables；　and　preserving　great　fortunes　in　great　families；　have　dreaded　lest　such　an　alienation　might　clandestinely　be　brought　about　by　a　lease；　for　a　long　term；　and　without　return。　They　have　eagerly　attempted　to　defend　the　rights　of　proprietors　against　proprietors　themselves；　they　have　guided　that　class　of　people　by　forfeits　and　resolutory　clauses；　they　have　fixed　upon　a　short　term　for　farm　leases；　they　seem　continually　repeating　to　the　cultivator：　〃This　land；　on　which　you　work；　is　not　yours；　acquire　not　too　much　affection　for　it；　make　no　advances　which　you　might　run　the　risk　of　losing；　improve　the　present　moment；　if　you　can；　but　think　not　of　the　future；　above　all；　beware　of　labouring　for　posterity。〃　　　　　Besides；　independently　of　legislative　errors；　it　belongs　to　the　very　nature　of　a　farm　lease　never　to　allow　the　farmer　to　take　as　much　interest　in　the　land　as　its　proprietor。　It　is　enough　that　this　lease　must　have　an　end；　to　induce　the　farmer；　as　this　end　approaches；　to　care　less　about　his　fields；　and　to　cease　laying　out　money　for　improving　them。　The　metayer；　with　smaller　power；　at　least　never　fears　to　improve　the　land　committed　to　him　as　much　as　possible；　because　the　conditions　of　his　lease　are　invariable；　and　he　is　never　dismissed　except　for　bad　behaviour。　The　farmer；　again；　is　liable　to　be　dismissed　directly　in　consequence　of　his　good　management。　The　more　he　has　improved　his　farm；　the　more　will　his　landlord；　at　renewing　the　lease；　be　disposed　to　require　an　augmentation　of　rent；　and；　besides；　as　part　nf　the　advances　laid　out　by　the　cultivator；　on　the　ground；　create　a　perpetual　value；　it　is　neither　just　nor　natural　that　they　should　be　made　by　one　whose　interest　is　merely　temporary。　The　farmer　will　carefully　attend　to　the　fields　and　meadows；　which；　in　a　few　years；　are　to　give　him　back　all　his　advances；　but　he　will　plant　few　orchards；　few　high　forests　in　the　north；　few　vineyards　in　the　south；　he　will　make　few　canals　for　navigation；　irrigation；　or　draining；　he　will　transport　little　soil　from　one　place　to　another；　he　will　clear　little　ground；　he　will　execute；　in　short；　few　of　those　works　which　are　most　conducive　to　the　public　interest；　because　they　found　the　wealth　of　posterity。　　　　　None　of　those　labours；　on　which　the　increase　of　the　whole　national　subsistence　depends；　can　be　undertaken；　save　by　a　proprietor；　rich　in　movable　capital。　It　is　not　the　preservation　of　great　fortunes　that　concerns　the　nation；　but　the　union　of　territorial　fortunes　with　circulating　ones。　The　fields　do　not　flourish　in　the　hands　of　those　who　have　already　too　much　wealth　to　watch　over　them；　but　in　the　hands　of　those　who　have　enough　of　money　to　bring　them　into　value。　Territorial　legislation　ought；　therefore；　without　ceasing；　to　strive　that　movable　capital　be　united　with　fixed；　property　which　we　call　personal　with　property　which　we　call　real。　Legislation；　over　almost　all　the　world；　has　striven　to　do　quite　the　contrary。　　　　　And　first；　it　were　always　for　the　national　advantage；　and　favourable　to　the　increase　of　its　production；　that　the　proprietor；　whenever　his　fortune　is　embarrassed；　should　sell　his　property；　instead　of　borrowing　on　it；　yet；　on　the　contrary；　facilities　have　been　held　out　to　him　for　borrowing；　rather　than　for　sale。　A　particular　system　of　law　has　been　created　for　territorial　debts；　marked　differences　have　been　established　between　real　and　personal　property；　the　rank　of　creditors　on　land　has　been　regulated　according　to　their　date；　whilst　an　absolute　equality　prevails　among　creditors　of　all　dates；　who　claim　only　on　movable　property。　And　thus　thousands　of　law…suits　have　been　created；　interminable　difficulties　have　been　started；　and　the　time　is　almost　come　when　half　the　lands　of　Europe　are　possessed　by　a　people　who　far　from　possessing　the　power　to　dispose　of　a　capital　that　might　increase　their　productiveness；　on　the　contrary；　are　debtors　by　a　pretty　large　capital；　which　they　cannot　extract　from　those　funds。　Hence　those　embarrassed　proprietors　have　incessantly　had　recourse　to　ruinous　expedients　not　to　put　money　on　their　lands；　but　to　take　it　off；　to　borrow　of　their　farmers；　to　diminish　the　funds　of　cultivation；　to　sell　their　woods；　and　deteriorate　their　estates。　If　the　law　had　given　no　preference　to　territorial　creditors；　if；　on　the　other　hand　it　had　given　as　much　facility　to　a　creditor　for　selling　an　immovable　property；　as　for　making　seizure　of　a　movable　one；　especially；　if；　in　protecting　personal　liberty；　sacrificed　too　slightly；　it　had　permitted　lands　to　be　sold　as　often　as　it　now　permits　the　debtor　to　be　put　in　prison　…　most　old　debts　would　be　extinguished；　and　those　immovable　possessions；　which　ought　to　support　the　nation；　would　be　in　the　hands　of　such　as　could　force　them；　by　capital　and　labour；　to　furnish　the　means　of　subsistence。　　　　　But　the　props　lent　to　the　pride　of　family　by　entails；　fideicommissa；　primogenitures；　and　the　laws　invented　to　hinder　families　in　a　ruinous　condition　from　selling　their　property；　have　still　further　impeded　the　development　of　agriculture　and　industry。　The　legislator　aimed　at　fixing　fortune　in　great　families：　he　has　fixed　beggary　and　want　in　them。　On　pretext　of　securing　the　patrimony　of　children；　he　has　forbidden　the　heir　of　entail　to　sell　or　borrow　with　a　sufficient　security　to　his　creditors；　but　he　could　not　hinder　him　from　going　to　ruin；　and　overwhelming　himself　with　clamorous　debts。　In　that　case；　even　the　care　of　his　honour；　the　feeling　of　justice；　and　his　own　security；　oblige　him　to　employ　all　the　resources　of　his　mind；　all　his　industry　in　destroying　his　patrimony；　that　he　may　obtain　the　disposal　of　what　law　has　reserved　to　his　heir。　Whatever　produce　he　can　detach　from　the　ground　without　replacing　it；　whatever　advance　he　can　dispense　with　laying　out；　is；　in　his　eyes；　just　so　much　profit；　and　Europe　has　come　to　see　the　proprietors　of　noble　estates；　almost　everywhere；　the　enemies　of　their　property。　At　the　same　time；　if　the　legislator's　object　was　the　preservation　of　families；　he　has　failed　in　this　object；　because　entails　condemn　all　the　sons　of　a　rich　family　to　idleness；　the　elder　out　of　pride；　the　younger　out　of　inability。　The　system　has　proscribed　all　from　industry；　the　sole　mean　of　increasing　property；　whilst　it　leaves　them　subject　to　all　human　chances；　which　never　cease　to　attack　whatever　is　ancient；　and　which　must　always；　in　the　end；　destroy　whatever　opulence　is　not　renewed。

Chapter　4

Of　Commercial　Wealth

　　　　By　labour　man　drew　his　first　wealth　from　the　earth；　but　scarcely　had　he　satisfied　his　primitive　wants；　when　desire　made　him　conceive　other　enjoyments；　not　to　be　obtained　without　the　aid　of　his　fellows。　Exchanges　began。　They　extended　to　whatever　had　any　value；　to　whatever　could　produce　any；　they　comprised　mutual　services　and　labour；　no　less　than　the　fruit　of　labour；　and　gave　room　to　the　formation　and　increase　of　a　new　kind　of　wealth；　which　was　no　longer　measured　by　the　wants　of　him　who　produced　it；　but　by　the　wants　of　all　those　with　whom　he　might　transact　exch