political economy-第15部分

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r　a　moment　by　a　fall　in　the　price；　is　very　soon　shut　up；　and　if　the　general　consumption　is　not　increased；　the　production　is　not　so　either。　　　　　Sale　is　extended　also；　and　in　a　more　lasting　manner；　when　the　cheapness　of　the　thing　produced　brings　it　within　the　reach　of　a　new　class　of　consumers；　a　very　sensible　diminution　of　the　price　may　often　produce　this　effect。　Thus　glass　windows　were　at　one　time　confined　to　palaces；　they　are　found　at　the　present　time　in　the　meanest　huts。　Consumption　is　in　that　case　truly　increased；　each　nation　gains　doubly　by　it；　manufacturers　have　extended　their　labour；　the　poor　have　acquired　a　new　enjoyment。　　　　　The　increase　of　population；　and　of　national　wealth；　contributes　to　extend　the　market；　in　a　manner　still　more　advantageous。　Yet　every　conceivable　increase　of　population　and　of　wealth；　does　not；　of　necessity；　extend　the　market；　it　is　only　such　an　increase　as　attends　the　increased　comforts　of　the　most　numerous　class。　When　cultivation　on　the　great　scale　has　succeeded　cultivation　on　the　small；　more　capital　is　perhaps　absorbed　by　land；　and　re…produced　by　it；　more　wealth　than　formerly　may　be　diffused　among　the　whole　mass　of　agriculturists；　but　the　consumption　of　one　rich　farmer's　family；　united　to　that　of　fifty　families　of　miserable　hinds；　is　not　so　valuable　for　the　nation；　as　that　of　fifty　families　of　peasants；　no　one　of　which　was　rich；　but　none　deprived　of　an　honest　competence。　So　also　in　towns；　the　consumption　of　a　manufacturer　worth　a　million；　under　whose　orders　are　employed　a　thousand　workmen；　reduced　to　the　bare　necessaries　of　life；　is　not　so　advantageous　for　the　nation；　as　that　of　a　hundred　manufacturers　far　less　rich；　who　employ　each　but　ten　workmen　far　less　poor。　It　is　very　true；　that　ten　thousand　pounds　of　income；　whether　they　belong　to　a　single　man；　or　to　a　hundred；　are　all　equally　destined　for　consumption；　but　this　consumption　is　not　of　the　same　nature。　A　man；　however　rich；　cannot　employ　for　his　use　an　infinitely　greater　number　of　articles　than　a　poor　man；　but　he　employs　articles　infinitely　better；　he　requires　work　far　better　finished；　materials　far　more　precious；　and　brought　from　a　far　greater　distance。　It　is　he　who　especially　encourages　the　perfection　of　certain　workmen；　that　finish　a　small　number　of　objects　with　extreme　skill；　it　is　he　who　pays　them　an　exorbitant　wage。　It　is　he　also　that　especially　rewards　such　workmen　as　we　have　named　unproductive；　because　they　procure　for　him　nothing　but　fugitive　enjoyments；　which　can　never　by　accumulation　form　part　of　the　national　wealth；　and　whilst　the　effect　of　increasing　capital　is　generally　to　concentrate　labour　in　very　large　manufactories；　the　effect　of　great　opulence　is　almost　entirely　to　exclude　the　produce　of　those　large　manufactories　from　the　consumption　of　the　opulent　man。　The　diffusion　of　wealth；　therefore；　still　more　than　its　accumulation；　truly　constitutes　national　prosperity；　because　it　keeps　up　the　kind　of　consumption　most　favourable　for　national　re…production。　　　　　The　manufacturer's　market　may；　in　the　last　place；　be　extended；　by　what　forms　the　noblest　wish　of　a　statesman；　the　progress　of　civilization；　comfort；　security；　and　happiness；　among　barbarous　nations。　Europe　has　arrived　at　such　a　point；　that；　in　all　its　parts；　there　is　to　be　found　an　industry；　a　quantity　of　fabrication；　superior　to　its　wants；　but　if　false　policy　did　not　incessantly　induce　us　to　arrest　the　progress　of　civilization　among　our　neighbours；　if　Egypt　had　been　left　in　the　hands　of　a　people　requiring　the　arts　of　Europe；　if　Turkey　were　extricated　from　the　oppression　under　which　it　groans；　if　our　victories　over　the　inhabitants　of　Barbary　had　been　profitably　employed　in　giving　back　the　coasts　of　Africa　to　social　life；　if　Spain　had　not　again　been　yielded　to　a　despotism　which　destroys　and　ruins　her　population；　if　the　independents　of　America　were　protected；　so　that　they　might　be　allowed　to　enjoy　the　advantages　which　nature　offers　them；　if　the　Hindoos；　subject　to　Europe；　were　amalgamated　with　Europeans；　if　Franks　were　encouraged　to　settle　among　them；　in　place　of　being　repelled；　…　consumption　would　increase　in　these　different　counties；　rapidly　enough　to　employ　all　this　super…abundant　labour；　which　Europe　at　present　knows　not　how　to　dispose　of；　and　to　terminate　this　distress　in　which　the　poor　are　plunged。　　　　　The　more　superior　the　buyer's　price　is　to　the　seller's；　the　more　profit　does　trade　give　to　be　shared　among　the　trader；　and　all　those　whom　he　employs　in　the　transport　and　distribution　of　his　goods；　the　manufacturer；　and　all　those　whom　he　employs　in　the　production　of　them。　Hence　one　of　the　great　and　constant　objects　of　governments　has　been；　to　increase　this　difference；　that　their　manufacturers　might　be　enabled　to　produce　cheap；　and　so　find　many　buyers；　and　to　sell　dear　to　such　as　could　not　buy　elsewhere；　and　so　gain　a　large　profit。　The　progress　of　society　generally　enables　nations　to　produce　cheaper；　the　almost　ever　injudicious　protection　of　government　often　gives　them　means　of　selling　dearer。　　　　　The　low　price　of　workmanship　is　the　first　cause　of　manufacturing　profit；　but　this　low　price　is　never　a　national　advantage；　except　when　it　is　produced　by　superiority　of　climate；　greater　fertility　of　soil；　or　abundance　of　provision。　On　the　contrary；　when　it　arises　from　the　difficulty　of　communication；　which　prevents　cultivators　from　reaping　all　the　profit　of　their　wares；　it　can　only　be　regarded　as　a　private　advantage；　acquired　at　the　expense　of　the　national　advantage。　When　the　low　price　of　workmanship　arises　from　the　poverty　of　day…labourers；　forced　by　competition　to　content　themselves　with　what　is　necessary　for　life；　though　commerce　may　profit　by　the　circumstance；　it　is　nothing　better　than　a　national　calamity。　　　　　Abundance　of　capital；　and　the　consequence　of　this；　a　low　price　of　interest；　likewise　doubly　contribute　to　diminish　the　price　of　production。　With　more　capital；　the　manufacturer　and　merchant　transact　their　purchases　and　sales　at　a　more　favourable　moment；　they　are　not　pressed　by　either　operation；　or　compelled　to　provide　for　the　print　by　a　sacrifice　of　future　advantage。　Executing　all　kinds　of　labour　more　on　the　great　scale；　they　save　time；　and　all　those　incidental　charges；　which　are　the　same　for　a　great　and　for　a　small　sum。　But　as　to　the　saving　made　by　the　merchant　on　the　interest　of　money；　it　is　made　at　the　expense　of　a　particular　class；　deriving　their　revenue　from　trade；　it　does　not　enrich　the　nation　any　more　than　the　diminution　of　wages　enriched　it；　it　only　gives　to　one　what　it　takes　from　another。　　　　　The　increasing　division　of　labour　forms；　as　we　have　seen；　the　chief　cause　of　increase　in　its　productive　powers；　each　makes　better　what　he　is　constantly　engaged　in　making；　and　when；　at　length；　his　whole　labour　is　reduced　to　the　simplest　operation；　he　comes　to　perform　it　with　such　ease　and　rapidity；　that　the　eye　cannot　make　us　comprehend　how　the　address　of　man　should　arrive　at　such　precision　and　promptitude。　Often　also　this　division　leads　to　the　discovery；　that　as　the　workman　is　now　worth　nothing　more　than　a　machine；　a　machine　may　in　fact　supply　his　place。　Several　important　inventions　in　mechanics　applied　to　the　arts；　have　thus　sprung　from　the　division　of　labour；　but；　by　the　influence　of　this　division；　man　has　lost　in　intelligence　all　that　he　has　gained　in　the　power　of　producing　wealth。　　　　　It　is　by　the　variety　of　its　operations　that　our　soul　is　unfolded；　it　is　to　procure　citizens　that　a　nation　wishes　to　have　men；　not　to　procure　machines　At　for　operations　a　little　more　complicated　than　those　performed　by　fire　or　water。　The　division　of　labour　has　conferred　a　value　on　operations　so　simple；　that　children；　from　the　tenderest　age；　are　capable　of　executing　them；　and　children；　before　having　developed　any　of　their　faculties；　before　having　experienced　any　enjoyment　of　life；　are　accordingly　condemned　to　put　a　wheel　in　motion；　to　turn　a　spindle；　to　empty　a　bobbin。　More　lace；　more　pins；　more　threads；　and　cloth　of　cotton　or　silk；　are　the　fruit　of　this　great　division　of　labour；　but　how　dearly　have　we　purchased　them；　if　it　is　by　this　moral　sacrifice　of　so　many　millions　of　human　beings！　　　　　The　employment　of　machinery　in　place　of　men；　has　contributed　generally　to　lessen　the　price　of　production。　At　the　renovation　of　arts　and　civilization；　there　was　so　much　work　to　be　done；　and　so　few　hands　to　do　it；　oppression　had　so　far　reduced　the　poor　class；　there　remained　so　much　uncultivated　land　in　the　country；　so　many　ill…supplied　trades　in　towns；　and　sovereigns　required　so　many　soldiers　for　war；　that　it　seemed　workmanship　could　never　be　economized　enough；　since　an　artisan；　sent　away　from　one　trade；　would　always　find　ten　others　ready　to　receive　him。　Circumstances　are　not　now　the　same；　our　labour　is　scarcely　sufficient　for　the　labourers。　We　shall　endeavour；　in　another　place；　to　explain　the　cause　of　this　fact；　in　the　mean　time；　surely　none　will　maintain　that　it　can　be　advantageous　to　substitute　a　machine　for　a　man；　if　this　man　cannot　find　work　elsewhere；　or　that　it　is　not　better　to　have　the　population　composed　of　citizens　than　of　steam…engines；　even　though　the　cotton　cloth　of　the　first　should　be　a　little　dearer　than　that　of　the　second。　　　　　The　application　of　science　to　art　is　not　limited　to　the　invention　of　machinery；　its　r