the crowd-第36部分

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e　in　communication　with　the　hamlet　of　Olette　（747　inhabitants）；　&c。　　In　1895　alone　90　millions　of　francs　were　voted　for　railways　of　only　local　utility。　There　is　other　no　less　important　expenditure　necessitated　also　by　electioneering　considerations。　　The　law　instituting　workingmen's　pensions　will　soon　involve　a　minimum　annual　outlay　of　165　millions；　according　to　the　Minister　of　Finance；　and　of　800　millions　according　to　the　academician　M。　Leroy…Beaulieu。　　It　is　evident　that　the　continued　growth　of　expenditure　of　this　kind　must　end　in　bankruptcy。　　Many　European　countriesPortugal；　Greece；　Spain；　Turkeyhave　reached　this　stage；　and　others；　such　as　Italy；　will　soon　be　reduced　to　the　same　extremity。　　Still　too　much　alarm　need　not　be　felt　at　this　state　of　things；　since　the　public　has　successively　consented　to　put　up　with　the　reduction　of　four…fifths　in　the　payment　of　their　coupons　by　these　different　countries。　　Bankruptcy　under　these　ingenious　conditions　allows　the　equilibrium　of　Budgets　difficult　to　balance　to　be　instantly　restored。　　Moreover；　wars；　socialism；　and　economic　conflicts　hold　in　store　for　us　a　profusion　of　other　catastrophes　in　the　period　of　universal　disintegration　we　are　traversing；　and　it　is　necessary　to　be　resigned　to　living　from　hand　to　mouth　without　too　much　concern　for　a　future　we　cannot　control。



The　second　of　the　dangers　referred　to　abovethe　inevitable　restrictions　on　liberty　consummated　by　parliamentary　assembliesis　apparently　less　obvious；　but　is；　nevertheless；　very　real。　　It　is　the　result　of　the　innumerable　lawshaving　always　a　restrictive　actionwhich　parliaments　consider　themselves　obliged　to　vote　and　to　whose　consequences；　owing　to　their　shortsightedness；　they　are　in　a　great　measure　blind。

The　danger　must　indeed　be　most　inevitable；　since　even　England　itself；　which　assuredly　offers　the　most　popular　type　of　the　parliamentary　regime；　the　type　in　which　the　representative　is　most　independent　of　his　elector；　has　been　unable　to　escape　it。　Herbert　Spencer　has　shown；　in　a　work　already　old；　that　the　increase　of　apparent　liberty　must　needs　be　followed　by　the　decrease　of　real　liberty。　　Returning　to　this　contention　in　his　recent　book；　〃The　Individual　versus　the　State；〃　he　thus　expresses　himself　with　regard　to　the　English　Parliament：


〃Legislation　since　this　period　has　followed　the　course；　I　pointed　out。　　Rapidly　multiplying　dictatorial　measures　have　continually　tended　to　restrict　individual　liberties；　and　this　in　two　ways。　Regulations　have　been　established　every　year　in　greater　number；　imposing　a　constraint　on　the　citizen　in　matters　in　which　his　acts　were　formerly　completely　free；　and　forcing　him　to　accomplish　acts　which　he　was　formerly　at　liberty　to　accomplish　or　not　to　accomplish　at　will。　　At　the　same　time　heavier　and　heavier　public；　and　especially　local；　burdens　have　still　further　restricted　his　liberty　by　diminishing　the　portion　of　his　profits　he　can　spend　as　he　chooses；　and　by　augmenting　the　portion　which　is　taken　from　him　to　be　spent　according　to　the　good　pleasure　of　the　public　authorities。〃


This　progressive　restriction　of　liberties　shows　itself　in　every　country　in　a　special　shape　which　Herbert　Spencer　has　not　pointed　out；　it　is　that　the　passing　of　these　innumerable　series　of　legislative　measures；　all　of　them　in　a　general　way　of　a　restrictive　order；　conduces　necessarily　to　augment　the　number；　the　power；　and　the　influence　of　the　functionaries　charged　with　their　application。　　These　functionaries　tend　in　this　way　to　become　the　veritable　masters　of　civilised　countries。　　Their　power　is　all　the　greater　owing　to　the　fact　that；　amidst　the　incessant　transfer　of　authority；　the　administrative　caste　is　alone　in　being　untouched　by　these　changes；　is　alone　in　possessing　irresponsibility；　impersonality；　and　perpetuity。　　There　is　no　more　oppressive　despotism　than　that　which　presents　itself　under　this　triple　form。

This　incessant　creation　of　restrictive　laws　and　regulations；　surrounding　the　pettiest　actions　of　existence　with　the　most　complicated　formalities；　inevitably　has　for　its　result　the　confining　within　narrower　and　narrower　limits　of　the　sphere　in　which　the　citizen　may　move　freely。　　Victims　of　the　delusion　that　equality　and　liberty　are　the　better　assured　by　the　multiplication　of　laws；　nations　daily　consent　to　put　up　with　trammels　increasingly　burdensome。　　They　do　not　accept　this　legislation　with　impunity。　　Accustomed　to　put　up　with　every　yoke；　they　soon　end　by　desiring　servitude；　and　lose　all　spontaneousness　and　energy。　　They　are　then　no　more　than　vain　shadows；　passive；　unresisting　and　powerless　automata。

Arrived　at　this　point；　the　individual　is　bound　to　seek　outside　himself　the　forces　he　no　longer　finds　within　him。　　The　functions　of　governments　necessarily　increase　in　proportion　as　the　indifference　and　helplessness　of　the　citizens　grow。　　They　it　is　who　must　necessarily　exhibit　the　initiative；　enterprising；　and　guiding　spirit　in　which　private　persons　are　lacking。　　It　falls　on　them　to　undertake　everything；　direct　everything；　and　take　everything　under　their　protection。　　The　State　becomes　an　all…powerful　god。　　Still　experience　shows　that　the　power　of　such　gods　was　never　either　very　durable　or　very　strong。

This　progressive　restriction　of　all　liberties　in　the　case　of　certain　peoples；　in　spite　of　an　outward　license　that　gives　them　the　illusion　that　these　liberties　are　still　in　their　possession；　seems　at　least　as　much　a　consequence　of　their　old　age　as　of　any　particular　system。　　It　constitutes　one　of　the　precursory　symptoms　of　that　decadent　phase　which　up　to　now　no　civilisation　has　escaped。

Judging　by　the　lessons　of　the　past；　and　by　the　symptoms　that　strike　the　attention　on　every　side；　several　of　our　modern　civilisations　have　reached　that　phase　of　extreme　old　age　which　precedes　decadence。　　It　seems　inevitable　that　all　peoples　should　pass　through　identical　phases　of　existence；　since　history　is　so　often　seen　to　repeat　its　course。

It　is　easy　to　note　briefly　these　common　phases　of　the　evolution　of　civilisations；　and　I　shall　terminate　this　work　with　a　summary　of　them。　　This　rapid　sketch　will　perhaps　throw　some　gleams　of　light　on　the　causes　of　the　power　at　present　wielded　by　crowds。

If　we　examine　in　their　main　lines　the　genesis　of　the　greatness　and　of　the　fall　of　the　civilisations　that　preceded　our　own；　what　do　we　see？

At　the　dawn　of　civilisation　a　swarm　of　men　of　various　origin；　brought　together　by　the　chances　of　migrations；　invasions；　and　conquests。　　Of　different　blood；　and　of　equally　different　languages　and　beliefs；　the　only　common　bond　of　union　between　these　men　is　the　half…recognised　law　of　a　chief。　　The　psychological　characteristics　of　crowds　are　present　in　an　eminent　degree　in　these　confused　agglomerations。　　They　have　the　transient　cohesion　of　crowds；　their　heroism；　their　weaknesses；　their　impulsiveness；　and　their　violence。　　Nothing　is　stable　in　connection　with　them。　　They　are　barbarians。

At　length　time　accomplishes　its　work。　　The　identity　of　surroundings；　the　repeated　intermingling　of　races；　the　necessities　of　life　in　common　exert　their　influence。　　The　assemblage　of　dissimilar　units　begins　to　blend　into　a　whole；　to　form　a　race；　that　is；　an　aggregate　possessing　common　characteristics　and　sentiments　to　which　heredity　will　give　greater　and　greater　fixity。　　The　crowd　has　become　a　people；　and　this　people　is　able　to　emerge　from　its　barbarous　state。　　However；　it　will　only　entirely　emerge　therefrom　when；　after　long　efforts；　struggles　necessarily　repeated；　and　innumerable　recommencements；　it　shall　have　acquired　an　ideal。　　The　nature　of　this　ideal　is　of　slight　importance；　whether　it　be　the　cult　of　Rome；　the　might　of　Athens；　or　the　triumph　of　Allah；　it　will　suffice　to　endow　all　the　individuals　of　the　race　that　is　forming　with　perfect　unity　of　sentiment　and　thought。

At　this　stage　a　new　civilisation；　with　its　institutions；　its　beliefs；　and　its　arts；　may　be　born。　　In　pursuit　of　its　ideal；　the　race　will　acquire　in　succession　the　qualities　necessary　to　give　it　splendour；　vigour；　and　grandeur。　　At　times　no　doubt　it　will　still　be　a　crowd；　but　henceforth；　beneath　the　mobile　and　changing　characteristics　of　crowds；　is　found　a　solid　substratum；　the　genius　of　the　race　which　confines　within　narrow　limits　the　transformations　of　a　nation　and　overrules　the　play　of　chance。

After　having　exerted　its　creative　action；　time　begins　that　work　of　destruction　from　which　neither　gods　nor　men　escape。　　Having　reached　a　certain　level　of　strength　and　complexity　a　civilisation　ceases　to　grow；　and　having　ceased　to　grow　it　is　condemned　to　a　speedy　decline。　　The　hour　of　its　old　age　has　struck。

This　inevitable　hour　is　always　marked　by　the　weakening　of　the　ideal　that　was　the　mainstay　of　the　race。　　In　proportion　as　this　ideal　pales　all　the　religious；　political；　and　social　structures　inspired　by　it　begin　to　be　shaken。

With　the　progressive　perishing　of　its　ideal　the　race　loses　more　and　more　the　qualities　that　lent　it　its　cohesion；　its　unity；　and　its　strength。　　The　personality　and　intelligence　of　the　individual　may　increase；　but　at　the　same　time　this　collective　egoism　of　the　race　is　replaced　by　an　excessive　development　of　the　egoism　of　the　individual；　accompanied　by　a　weakening　of　character　and　a　lessening　of　the　capacity　for　action。　　What　const