criminal psychology-第111部分

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　in　indicating　the　changes　in　the　meaning　of　words。　Many　a　time；　if　we　bear　thoroughly　in　mind　the　mere　changes　in　the　meaning　of　the　word　standing　for　a　doubtful　fact；　we　put　ourselves　in　possession　of　the　history　of　morals。　Even　the　most　important　quarrels　would　lapse　if　the　quarreling　persons　could　get　emotionally　at　the　intent　of　their　opponent's　words。

In　this　connection　questions　of　honor　offer　a　broad　field　of　examples。　It　is　well　known　that　German　is　rich　in　words　that　show　personal　dislikes；　and　also；　that　the　greater　portion　of　these　words　are　harmless　in　themselves。　But　one　man　understands　this；　the　other　that；　when　he　hears　the　words；　and　finally；　German　is　in　the　curious　position　of　being　the　cause　of　the　largest　number　of　attacks　on　honor　　and　of　cases　of　slander　in　the　world。　Where　the　Frenchman　laughs　and　becomes　witty；　the　German　grows　sullen；　insulting；　and　looks　for　trouble。　The　French　call　sensitiveness　to　insignificant　and　worthless　things；　the　German　way　of　quarreling　（faire　querelle　d'allemand）。　Many　a　slander　case　in　court　is　easily　settled　by　showing　people　the　value　of　the　word。　Many　who　complained　that　they　were　called　a　creature；　a　person；　etc。；　went　away　satisfied　as　soon　as　the　whole　meaning　of　the　words　had　been　explained　to　them。

In　conclusion；　just　a　word　concerning　the　influence　of　time　on　conception。　Not　the　length　of　past　time；　but　the　value　of　the　time…　span　is　what　is　important　in　determining　an　event。　According　to　Herbart；　there　is　a　form　of　temporal　repetition；　and　time　is　the　form　of　repetition。　If　he　is　right　it　is　inevitable　that　time；　fast…moving　or　slow…moving；　must　influence　the　conception　of　events。　It　is　well…known　that　monotony　in　the　run　of　time　makes　it　seem　slow；　while　time　full　of　events　goes　swiftly；　but　appears　long　in　memory；　because　a　large　number　of　points　have　to　be　thought　through。　Mnsterberg　shows　that　we　have　to　stop　at　every　separate　point；　and　so　time　seems；　in　memory；　longer。　But　this　is　not　universally　valid。　Aristotle　had　already　pointed　out　that　a　familiar　road　appears　to　be　shorter　than　an　unfamiliar　one；　and　this　is　contradictory　to　the　first　proposition。　So；　a　series　of　days　flies　away　if　we　spend　them　quietly　and　calmly　in　vacation　in　the　country。　Their　swiftness　is　surprising。　Then　when　something　of　importance　occurs　in　our　life　and　it　is　directly　succeeded　by　a　calm；　eventless　period；　this　seems　very　long　in　memory；　although　it　should　have　seemed　long　when　it　occurred；　and　short　in　the　past。　These　and　similar　phenomena　are　quite　unexplained；　and　all　that　can　be　said　after　numerous　experiments　is；　that　we　conceive　short　times　as　long；　and　long　times　as　short。　Now；　we　may　add　the　remarkable　fact　that　most　people　have　no　idea　of　the　duration　of　very　small　times；　especially　of　the　minute。　Ask　any　individual　to　sit　absolutely　quiet；　without　counting　or　doing　anything　else；　and　to　indicate　the　passing　of　each　minute　up　to　five。　He　will　say　that　the　five　minutes　have　passed　at　the　end　of　never　more　than　a　minute　and　a　half。　So　witnesses　in　estimating　time　will　make　mistakes　also；　and　these　mistakes；　and　other　nonsense；　are　written　into　the　protocols。

There　are　two　means　of　correction。　Either　have　the　witness　determine　the　time　in　terms　of　some　familiar　form；　i。　e。；　a　paternoster；　etc。；　or　give　him　the　watch　and　let　him　observe　the　second　hand。　In　the　latter　case　he　will　assert　that　his　ten；　or　his　five；　or　　his　twenty　minutes　were；　at　most；　no　more　than　a　half　or　a　whole　minute。

The　problem　of　time　is　still　more　difficult　when　the　examination　has　to　be　made　with　regard　to　the　estimation　of　still　longer　periods　weeks；　months；　or　years。　There　is　no　means　of　making　any　test。　The　only　thing　that　experience　definitely　shows　is；　that　the　certainty　of　such　estimates　depends　on　their　being　fixed　by　distinct　events。　If　anybody　says　that　event　A　occurred　four　or　five　days　before　event　B；　we　may　believe　him　if；　e。　g。；　he　adds；　‘‘For　when　A　occurred　we　began　to　cut　corn；　and　when　B　occurred　we　harvested　it。　And　between　these　two　events　there　were　four　or　five　days。''　If　he　can　not　adduce　similar　judgments；　we　must　never　depend　upon　him；　for　things　may　have　occurred　which　have　so　influenced　his　conception　of　time　that　he　judges　altogether　falsely。

It　often　happens　in　such　cases　that　defective　estimates；　made　in　the　course　of　lengthy　explanations；　suddenly　become　points　of　reference；　and　then；　if　wrong；　are　the　cause　of　mistakes。　Suppose　that　a　witness　once　said　that　an　event　occurred　four　years　ago。　Much　later　an　estimation　of　the　time　is　undertaken　which　shows　that　the　hasty　statement　sets　the　event　in　1893。　And　then　all　the　most　important　conclusions　are　merely　argued　from　that。　It　is　best；　as　is　customary　in　such　cases；　to　test　the　uncertainty　and　incorrectness　of　these　estimates　of　time　on　oneself。　It　may　be　assumed　that　the　witness；　in　the　case　in　question；　is　likely　to　have　made　a　better　estimate；　but　it　may　equally　be　assumed　that　he　has　not　done　so。　In　short；　the　conception　of　periods　of　time　can　not　be　dealt　with　too　cautiously。


Section　84。　（e）　Nature　and　Nurture。

Schopenhauer　was　the　first　to　classify　people　according　to　nature　and　nurture。　Just　where　he　first　used　the　categories　I　do　not　know；　but　I　know　that　he　is　responsible　for　them。　‘‘Nature''　is　physical　and　mental　character　and　disposition；　taken　most　broadly；　‘‘nurture''　is　bringing　up；　environment；　studies；　scholarship；　and　experience；　also　in　the　broadest　sense　of　those　words。　Both　together　present　what　a　man　is；　what　he　is　able　to　do；　what　he　wants　to　do。　A　classification；　then；　according　to　nature　and　nurture　is　a　classification　according　to　essence　and　character。　The　influence　of　a　man's　nature　on　his　face；　we　know；　or　try　to　know；　but　what　criminal　relationships　his　nurture　may　develop　for　us；　we　are　altogether　ignorant　of。　There　are　all　sorts　of　intermediaries；　connections　and　　differences　between　what　the　goddess　of　civilization　finds　to　prize；　and　what　can　be　justified　only　by　a　return　to　simplicity　and　nature。


Section　85。　I。　_The　Influence　of　Nurture_。

Criminologically　the　influence　of　nurture　on　mankind　is　important　if　it　can　explain　the　development　of　morality；　honorableness；　and　love　of　truth。　The　criminalist　has　to　study　relations；　actions；　and　assertions；　to　value　and　to　compare　them　when　they　are　differentiable　only　in　terms　of　the　nurture　of　those　who　are　responsible　for　them。　The　most　instructive　works　on　this　problem　are　those　of　Tarde；＇1＇　and　Oelzelt…Newin。＇2＇　Among　the　older　writers　Leibnitz　had　already　said；　‘‘If　you　leave　education　to　me　I'll　change　Europe　in　a　century。''　Descartes；　Locke；　Helvetius　assign　to　nurture　the　highest　possible　value　while　Carlyle；　e。　g。；　insists　that　civilization　is　a　cloak　in　which　wild　human　nature　may　eternally　burn　with　hellish　fire。　For　moderns　it　is　a　half…way　house。　Ribot　says　that　training　has　least　effect　at　the　two　extremes　of　humanitylittle　and　transitively　on　the　idiot；　much　on　the　average　man；　not　at　all　on　the　genius。　I　might　add　that　the　circle　of　idiots　and　geniuses　must　be　made　extremely　large；　for　average　people　are　very　few　in　number；　and　the　increase　in　intellectual　training　has　made　no　statistical　difference　on　the　curve　of　crime。　This　is　one　of　the　conclusions　arrived　at　by　Adolf　Wagner＇3＇　which　corroborates　the　experience　of　practicing　lawyers　and　we　who　have　had；　during　the　growth　of　popular　education；　the　opportunity　to　make　observations　from　the　criminalistic　standpoint；　know　nothing　favorable　to　its　influence。　If　the　general　assertion　is　true　that　increased　national　education　has　reduced　brawling；　damages　to　property；　etc。；　and　has　increased　swindling；　misappropriations；　etc。；　we　have　made　a　great　mistake。　For　the　psychological　estimation　of　a　criminal；　the　crime　itself　is　not　definitive；　there　is　always　the　question　as　to　the　damage　this　individual　has　done　his　own　nature　with　his　deed。　If；　then；　a　peasant　lad　hits　his　neighbor　with　the　leg　of　a　chair　or　destroys　fences；　or　perhaps　a　whole　village；　he　may　still　be　the　most　honorable　of　youths；　and　later　grow　up　into　a　universally　respected　man。　Many　of　the　best　and　most　useful　village　mayors　have　been　guilty　in　their　youth　of　brawls；　damages　to　property；　resistance　to　authority；　and　similar　things。


＇1＇　G。　Tarde：　La　Philosophie　P　Compar