criminal psychology-第124部分

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t　in　the　woods；　go　round　in　a　significantly　small　circle。　It　is　frequently　observed　that　persons；　who　for　one　reason　or　another；　i。　e。；　robbery；　maltreatment；　a　burglarious　assault；　etc。；　had　fled　into　the　woods　to　escape；　found　themselves　at　daybreak；　in　spite　of　their　flight；　very　near　the　place　of　the　crime；　so　that　their　honesty　in　fleeing　seems　hardly　believable。　Nevertheless　it　may　be　perfectly　trustworthy；　even　though　in　the　daytime　the　fugitive　might　be　altogether　at　home　in　the　woods。　He　has　simply　underestimated　the　deviations　he　has　made；　and　hence　believes　that　he　has　moved　at　most　in　a　very　flat　arc。　Supposing　himself　to　be　going　forward　and　leaving　the　wood；　he　has　really　been　making　a　sharp　arc；　and　always　in　the　same　direction；　so　that　his　path　has　really　been　circular。


＇1＇　Cf。　Entwurf；　etc。


Some　corroboration　for　this　illusion　is　supplied　by　the　fact　that　the　left　eye　sees　objects　on　the　left　too　small；　while　the　right　eye　underestimates　the　right　side　of　objects。　This　underestimation　varies　from　0。3　to　0。7％。　These　are　magnitudes　which　may　naturally　be　of　importance；　and　which　in　the　dark　most　affect　deviations　that　are　closely　regarded　on　the　inner　side　of　the　eyei。　e。；　deviations　to　the　left　of　the　left　eye　or　the　right　of　the　right　eye。

Such　confusions　become　most　troublesome　when　other　estimations　are　added　to　them。　So　long　as　the　informant　knows　that　he　has　only　been　estimating；　the　danger　is　not　too　great。　But　as　a　rule　the　informant　does　not　regard　his　conception　as　an　estimate；　but　as　certain　knowledge。　He　does　not　say；　‘‘I　estimate；''　he　says；　‘‘It　is　so。''　Aubert　tells　how　the　astronomer　Frster　had　a　number　of　educated　men；　physicians；　etc。；　estimate　the　diameter　of　the　moon。　The　estimation　varied　from　1''　to　8''　and　more。　The　proper　diameter　is　1。5''　at　a　distance　of　12''。

It　is　well　known　that　an　unfurnished　room　seems　much　smaller　than　a　furnished　one；　and　a　lawn　covered　with　snow；　smaller　than　a　thickly…grown　one。　We　are　regularly　surprised　when　we　find　an　enormous　new　structure　on　an　apparently　small　lot；　or　when　a　lot　is　parcelled　out　into　smaller　building　lots。　When　they　are　planked　off　we　marvel　at　the　number　of　planks　which　can　be　laid　on　the　sur…　　face。　The　illusions　are　still　greater　when　we　look　upward。　We　are　less　accustomed　to　estimation　of　verticals　than　of　horizontals。　An　object　on　the　gutter　of　a　roof　seems　much　smaller　than　at　a　similar　distance　on　the　ground。　This　can　be　easily　observed　if　any　figure　which　has　been　on　the　roof　of　a　house　for　years　is　once　brought　down。　Even　if　it　is　horizontally　twice　as　far　as　the　height　of　the　house；　the　figure　still　seems　larger　than　before。　That　this　illusion　is　due　to　defective　practice　is　shown　by　the　fact　that　children　make　mistakes　which　adults　find　inconceivable。　Helmholtz　tells　how；　as　child；　he　asked　his　mother　to　get　him　the　little　dolls　from　the　gallery　of　a　very　high　tower。　I　remember　myself　that　at　five　years　I　proposed　to　my　comrades　to　hold　my　ankles　so　that　I　could　reach　for　a　ball　from　the　second　story　of　a　house　down　to　the　court…yard。　I　had　estimated　the　height　as　one…twelfth　of　its　actual　magnitude。　Certain　standards　of　under　and　overestimations　are　given　us　when　there　is　near　the　object　to　be　judged　an　object　the　size　of　which　we　know。　The　reason　for　the　fact　that　trees　and　buildings　get　such　ideal　sizes　on　so…called　heroic　landscape　is　the　artistically　reduced　scale。　I　know　that　few　pictures　have　made　such　a　devilish　impression　on　me　as　an　enormous　landscape；　something　in　the　style　of　Claude　Lorraine；　covering　half　a　wall。　In　its　foreground　there　is　to　be　seen　a　clerk　riding　a　horse　in　a　glen。　Rider　and　horse　are　a　few　inches　high；　and　because　of　this　the　already　enormous　landscape　becomes　frightfully　big。　I　saw　the　picture　as　a　student；　and　even　now　I　can　describe　all　its　details。　Without　the　diminutive　clerk　it　would　have　had　no　particular　effect。

In　this　connection　we　must　not　forget　that　the　relations　of　magnitude　of　things　about　us　are；　because　of　perspective；　so　uncertain　that　we　no　longer　pay　any　attention　to　them。　‘‘I　find　it　difficult；''　says　Lipps；＇1＇　‘‘to　believe　that　the　oven　which　stands　in　the　corner　of　the　room　does　not　look　larger　than　my　hand　when　I　hold　it　a　foot　away　from　my　eyes；　or　that　the　moon　is　not　larger　than　the　head　of　a　pin；　which　I　look　at　a　little　more　closely。。。。　We　must　not　forget　how　we　are　in　the　custom　of　comparing。　I　compare　hand　and　oven；　and　I　think　of　the　hand　in　terms　of　the　oven。''　That　is　because　we　know　how　large　the　hand　and　the　oven　are；　but　very　often　we　compare　things　the　sizes　of　which　we　do　not　know；　or　which　we　can　not　so　easily　get　at；　and　then　there　are　many　extraordinary　illusions。


＇1＇　Die　Grundtatsachen　des　Seelenlebens。　Bonn　1883。


In　connection　with　the　cited　incident　of　the　estimation　of　the　　moon's　diameter；　there　is　the　illusion　of　Thomas　Reid　who　saw　that　the　moon　seemed　as　large　as　a　plate　when　looked　at　with　the　unhampered　eye；　but　as　large　as　a　dollar　when　looked　at　through　a　tube。　This　mistake　establishes　the　important　fact　that　the　size　of　the　orifice　influences　considerably　the　estimation　of　the　size　of　objects　seen　through　it。　Observations　through　key…holes　are　not　rarely　of　importance　in　criminal　cases。　The　underestimations　of　sizes　are　astonishing。


｛illust。　caption　=　FIG。　1。｝

｛illust。　caption　=　FIG。　2。｝


Arial　perspective　has　a　great　influence　on　the　determination　of　these　phenomena；　particularly　such　as　occur　in　the　open　and　at　great　distances。　The　influence　is　to　be　recognized　through　the　various　appearances　of　distant　objects；　the　various　colors　of　distant　mountains；　the　size　of　the　moon　on　the　horizon；　and　the　difficulties　which　arial　perspective　offers　painters。　Many　a　picture　owes　　its　success　or　failure　to　the　use　of　arial　perspective。　If　its　influence　is　significant　in　the　small　space　of　a　painting；　the　illusions　in　nature　can　easily　become　of　enormous　significance；　particularly　when　extremes　are　brought　together　in　the　observations　of　objects　in　unknown　regions。　The　condition　of　the　air；　sometimes　foggy　and　not　pellucid；　at　another　time　particularly　clear；　makes　an　enormous　difference；　and　statements　whether　about　distance；　size；　colors；　etc。；　are　completely　unreliable。　A　witness　who　has　several　times　observed　an　unknown　region　in　murky　weather　and　has　made　his　important　observation　under　very　clear　skies；　is　not　to　be　trusted。

An　explanation　of　many　sensory　illusions　may　be　found　in　the　so…called　illusory　lines。　They　have　been　much　studied；　but　Zllner＇1＇　has　been　the　first　to　show　their　character。　Thus；　really　quite　parallel　lines　are　made　to　appear　unparallel　by　the　juxtaposition　of　inclined　or　crossing　lines。　In　figures　1　and　2　both　the　horizontal　lines　are　actually　parallel；　as　may　be　determined　in　various　ways。


＇1＇　Poggendorf's　Annelen　der　Physik；　Vol。　110；　p。　500；　114；　587；　117；　477。


The　same　lines　looked　at　directly　or　backwards　seem；　in　Fig。　1；　convex；　in　Fig。　2　concave。


｛illust。　caption　=　FIG。　3。｝


Still　more　significant　is　the　illusion　in　Fig。　3；　in　which　the　convexity　is　very　clear。　The　length；　etc。；　of　the　lines　makes　no　difference　in　the　illusion。　

On　the　other　hand；　in　Fig。　4　the　diagonals　must　be　definitely　thicker　than　the　parallel　horizontal　lines；　if　those　are　to　appear　not　parallel。　That　the　inclination　is　what　destroys　the　appearance　of　parallels　is　shown　by　the　simple　case　given　in　Fig。　5；　where　the　distance　from　A　to　B　is　as　great　as　from　B　to　C；　and　yet　where　the　first　seems　definitely　smaller　than　the　second。

Still　more　deceptive　is　Fig。　6　where　the　first　line　with　the　angle　inclined　inwards　seems　incomparably　smaller　than　the　second　with　the　angle　inclined　outwards。


｛illust。　caption　=　FIG　4。｝



All　who　have　described　this　remarkable　subject　have　attempted　to　explain　it。　The　possession　of　such　an　explanation　might　put


｛illust。　caption　=　FIG。　5。｝

｛illust。　caption　=　FIG。　6。｝


us　in　a　position　to　account　for　a　large　number　of　practical　difficulties。　But　certain　as　the　facts　are；　we　are　still　far　from　their　_*why_　and　_*how_。　We　may　believe　that　the　phenomenon　shown　in　Figs。　1　and　2　appears　when　the　boundaries　of　a　field　come　straight　up　to　a　street　with　parallel　sides；　with　the　result　that　at　the　point　of　meeting　the　street　seems　to　be　bent　in。　Probably　we　have　observed　this　frequently　without　being　aware　of　it；　and　have　laid　no　particular　stress　on　it；　first　of　all；　because　it　was　really　unimportant；　and　secondly；　because　we　thought　that　the　street　was　really　not　straight　at　that　point。

In　a　like　manner　we　may　have　seen　the　effect　of　angles　as　shown　in　Figs。　5　and　6　on　streets　where　houses　or　house…fronts　were　built　cornerwise。　Then　the　line　between　the　corners　seemed　longer　or　shorter；　and　as　we　had　no　reason　for　seeking　an　accurate　judgment　　we　paid　no　attention　to　its　status。　We　simply　should　have　made　a　false　estimate　of　length　if　we　had　been　required　to　judge　it。　It　is　also　likely　that　we　may　have　supposed　an　actual　or　suppository　line　on　the　side　of　the　gables　of　a　house　enclosed　by　angles　of　the　gables；　to　be　short；but　until　now　the　knowledge　of　this　supposition　has　had　no　practical　va