criminal psychology-第131部分

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ot　at　all　so　unpleasant。

Association　has　much　influence。　For　a　long　time　I　disliked　to　go　to　a　market　where　flowers；　bouquets；　wreaths；　etc。；　were　kept　because　I　smelled　dead　human　bodies。　Finally；　I　discovered　that　the　odor　was　due　to　the　fact　that　I　knew　most　of　these　flowers　to　be　such　as　are　laid　on　coffinsare　smelled　during　interment。　Again；　many　people　find　perfumes　good　or　bad　as　they　like　or　dislike　the　person　who　makes　use　of　them；　and　the　judgment　concerning　the　pleasantness　or　unpleasantness　of　an　odor　is　mainly　dependent　upon　the　pleasantness　or　unpleasantness　of　associative　memories。　When　my　son；　who　is　naturally　a　vegetarian　and　who　could　never　be　moved　to　eat　meat；　became　a　doctor；　I　thought　that　he　could　never　be　brought　to　endure　the　odor　of　the　dissecting　room。　It　did　not　disturb　him　in　the　least；　however；　and　he　explained　it　by　saying：　‘‘I　do　not　eat　what　smells　like　that；　and　I　can　not　conceive　how　you　can　eat　anything　from　the　butcher　shops　where　the　odor　is　exactly　like　that　of　the　dissecting　room。''　What　odor　is　called　good　or　bad；　ecstatic　or　disgusting；　is　purely　a　subjective　matter　and　never　to　be　the　basis　of　a　universal　judgment。　Statements　by　witnesses　concerning　perceptions　of　odor　are　valueless　unless　otherwise　confirmed。


Section　104。　（b）　Hallucinations　and　Illusions。

The　limits　between　illusions　of　sense　and　hallucinations　and　illusions　proper　can　in　no　sense　be　definitely　determined　inasmuch　　as　any　phenomena　of　the　one　may　be　applied　to　the　other；　and　vice　versa。＇1＇　Most　safely　it　may　be　held　that　the　cause　of　illusions　of　sense　lies　in　the　nature　of　sense…organs；　while　the　hallucinations　and　illusions　are　due　to　the　activity　of　the　brain。　The　latter　are　much　more　likely　to　fall　within　the　scope　of　the　physician　than　sense…　illusions；　but　at　the　same　time　many　of　them　have　to　be　determined　upon　by　the　lawyer；　inasmuch　as　they　really　occur　to　normal　people　or　to　such　whose　disease　is　just　beginning　so　that　the　physician　can　not　yet　reach　it。　Nevertheless；　whenever　the　lawyer　finds　himself　face　to　face　with　a　supposed　illusion　or　hallucination　he　must　absolutely　call　in　the　physician。　For；　as　rarely　as　an　ordinary　illusion　of　sense　is　explicable　by　the　rules　of　logic　or　psychology；　or　even　by　means　of　other　knowledge　or　experience　at　the　command　of　any　educated　man；　so；　frequently；　do　processes　occur　in　cases　of　hallucination　and　illusion　which　require；　at　the　very　least；　the　physiological　knowledge　of　the　physician。　Our　activity　must　hence　be　limited　to　the　perception　of　the　presence　of　hallucination　or　illusion；　the　rest　is　matter　for　the　psychiatrist。　Small　as　our　concern　is；　it　is　important　and　difficult；　for　on　the　one　hand　we　must　not　appeal　to　the　physician　about　every　stupid　fancy　or　every　lie　a　prisoner　utters；　and　on　the　other　hand　we　assume　a　heavy　responsibility　if　we　interpret　a　real　hallucination　or　illusion　as　a　true　and　real　observation。　To　acquire　knowledge　of　the　nature　of　these　things；　therefore；　can　not　be　rigorously　enough　recommended。

Hallucination　and　illusion　have　been　distinguished　by　the　fact　that　hallucination　implies　no　external　object　whatever；　while　in　illusion　objects　are　mistaken　and　misinterpreted。　When　one　thing　is　taken　for　another；　e。　g。；　an　oven　for　a　man；　the　rustle　of　the　wind　for　a　human　song；　we　have　illusion。　When　no　objective　existence　is　perceived；　e。　g。；　when　a　man　is　seen　to　enter；　a　voice　is　heard；　a　touch　is　felt；　although　nothing　whatever　has　happened；　we　have　hallucination。　Illusion　is　partial；　hallucination　complete；　supplementation　of　an　external　object。　There　is　not　a　correct　and　definite　difference　between　illusion　and　hallucination　inasmuch　as　what　is　present　may　be　so　remotely　connected　with　what　is　perceived　that　it　is　no　more　than　a　stimulus；　and　thus　illusion　may　be　turned　into　real　hallucination。　One　authority　calls　illusion　the　conception　of　an　actually　present　external　event　which　is　perceived　by　the　peripheral　organs　in　the　form　of　an　idea　that　does　not　coincide　with　the


＇1＇　C。　Wernicke　ber　Halluzinationen；　Ratlosigkeit；　Desorientierung　etc。　Monatschrift　f。　Psychiatrie　u。　Neurologie；　IX；　1　（1901）。

　event。　The　mistake　does　not　lie　in　the　defective　activity　of　the　senses　so　much　as　in　the　fact　that　an　apperceptive　idea　is　substituted　for　the　perceptive　view。　In　hallucination　every　external　event　is　absent；　and　hence；　what　is　seen　is　due　to　a　stimulation　of　the　periphery。　Some　authorities　believe　hallucination　to　be　caused　by　cramp　of　the　sensory　nerve。　Others　find　illusions　to　be　an　externally　stimulated　sense…perception　not　corresponding　to　the　stimulus；　and　still　others　believe　it　to　be　essentially　normal。　Most　human　beings　are　from　time　to　time　subject　to　illusions；　indeed；　nobody　is　always　sober　and　intelligent　in　all　his　perceptions　and　convictions。　The　luminous　center　of　our　intelligent　perceptions　is　wrapped　in　a　cloudy　half…shadow　of　illusion。

Sully＇1＇　aims　to　distinguish　the　essential　nature　of　illusion　from　that　characterized　by　ordinary　language。　Illusion；　according　to　him；　is　often　used　to　denote　mistakes　which　do　not　imply　untrue　perceptions。　We　say　a　man　has　an　illusion　who　thinks　too　much　of　himself；　or　when　he　tells　stories　otherwise　than　as　they　happen　because　of　a　weakness　of　memory。　Illusion　is　every　form　of　mistake　which　substitutes　any　direct　self…evident　or　intuitive　knowledge；　whether　as　sense…perception　or　as　any　other　form。

Nowadays　the　cause　of　hallucination　and　illusion　is　sought　in　the　over…excitement　of　the　cerebro…spinal　system。　As　this　stimulation　may　be　very　various　in　its　intensity　and　significance；　from　the　momentary　rush　of　blood　to　complete　lunacy；　so　hallucinations　and　illusions　may　be　insignificant　or　signs　of　very　serious　mental　disturbances。　When　we　seek　the　form　of　these　phenomena；　we　find　that　all　those　psychical　events　belong　to　it　which　have　not　been　_*purposely_　performed　or　lied　about。　When　Brutus　sees　Csar's　ghost；　Macbeth；　Banquo's　ghost；　Nicholas；　his　son；　these　are　distinctly　hallucinations　or　illusions　of　the　same　kind　as　those　‘‘really　and　truly''　seen　by　our　nurses。　The　stories　of　such　people　have　no　significance　for　the　criminalist；　but　if　a　person　has　seen　an　entering　thief；　an　escaping　murderer；　a　bloody　corpse；　or　some　similar　object　of　criminal　law；　and　these　are　hallucinations　like　classical　ghosts；　then　are　we　likely　to　be　much　deceived。　Hoppe＇2＇　enumerates　hallucinations　of　apparently　sound　（？）　people。　1。　A　priest　tired　by　mental　exertion；　saw；　while　he　was　writing；　a　boy's　head　look　over　his　shoulder。　If　he　turned　toward　it　it　disappeared；　if　he　resumed　writing　it　reappeared。　2。　‘‘A　thoroughly　intelligent''


＇1＇　James　Sully。　Illusions。

＇2＇　J；　J。　Hoppe。　Erklrungen　des　Sinnestauschungen。

　man　always　was　seeing　a　skeleton。　3。　Pascal；　after　a　heavy　blow；　saw　a　fiery　abyss　into　which　he　was　afraid　he　would　fall。　4。　A　man　who　had　seen　an　enormous　fire；　for　a　long　time　afterward　saw　flames　continually。　5。　Numerous　cases　in　which　criminals；　especially　murderers；　always　had　their　victims　before　their　eyes。　6。　Justus　Mser　saw　well…known　flowers　and　geometrical　figures　very　distinctly。　7。　Bonnet　knows　a　‘‘healthy''　man　who　saw　people；　birds；　etc。；　with　open　eyes。　8。　A　man　got　a　wound　in　his　left　ear　and　for　weeks　afterward　saw　a　cat。　9。　A　woman　eighty…eight　years　old　often　saw　everything　covered　with　flowers；otherwise　she　was　quite　‘‘well。''

A　part　of　these　stories　seems　considerably　fictitious；　a　part　applies　to　indubitable　pathological　cases；　and　certain　of　them　are　confirmed　elsewhere。　That　murderers；　particularly　women…murderers　of　children；　often　see　their　victims　is　well　known　to　us　criminalists。　And　for　this　reason　the　habit　of　confining　prisoners　in　a　dark　cell　for　twenty…four　hours　on　the　anniversary　of　a　crime　must　be　pointed　to　as　refined　and　thoroughly　medival　cruelty。　I　have　repeatedly　heard　from　people　so　tortured　of　the　terror　of　their　visions　on　such　days　of　martyrdom。　Cases　are　told　of　in　which　prisoners　who　were　constipated　had　all　kinds　of　visual　and　auditory　hallucinations　and　appeared；　e。　g。；　to　hear　in　the　rustling　of　their　straw；　all　sorts　of　words。　That　isolation　predisposes　people　to　such　things　is　as　well　known　as　the　fact　that　constipation　causes　a　rush　of　blood　to　the　head；　and　hence；　nervous　excitement。　The　well…known　stories　of　robbers　which　are　often　told　us　by　prisoners　are　not　always　the　fruit　of　malicious　invention。　Probably　a　not　insignificant　portion　are　the　result　of　hallucination。

Hoppe　tells　of　a　great　group　of　hallucinations　in　conditions　of　waking　and　half…waking；　and　asserts　that　everybody　has　them　and　can　note　them　if　he　gives　his　attention　thereto。　This　may　be　an　exaggeration；　but　it　is　true　that　a　healthy　person　in　any　way　excited　or　afraid　may　hear　all　kinds　of　things　in　the　crackling　of　a　fire；　etc。；　and　may　see　all　kinds　of　things；　in　smoke；　in　clouds；　etc。　The　movement　of　portraits　and　statues　is　particularly　characteristic；　especially　in　dim　light；　and　under　unstable　emotional　conditions。　I　own　a　relief　by　Ghiberti　called　the　‘‘Rise　of　the　Flesh；''　in　which　seven　femurs　dance　around　a　corpse　and　sing。　If；　at　night；　I　put　out　the　lamp　in　my　study　and　the　moon　falls