criminal psychology-第14部分

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to　him；　he　does　not　know　what　it　means　or　how　to　get　hold　of　it；　it　offers　him　no　matter　of　interest。＇2＇　I　should　have　a　similar　experience　if；　in　the　course　of　a　trig　case；　I　told　a　man；　educated；　but　uninterested　in　the　case；　with　joy；　that　I　had　finally　discovered　the　important　note　on　which　the　explanation　of　the　events　depended。　I　could　not　possibly　expect　interest；　attention；　and　comprehension　of　a　matter　if　my　interlocutor　knows　nothing　about　the　issue　or　the　reason　of　the　note's　importance。　And　in　spite　of　the　fact　that　everything　is　natural　and　can　be　explained　we　have　the　same　story　every　day。　We　put　the　witness　a　definite　question　that　is　of　immense　importance　to　us；　who　are　fully　acquainted　with　the　problem；　but　is　for　the　witness　detached；　incoherent；　and　therefore　barren　of　interest。　Then　who　can　require　of　an　uninterested　witness；　attention；　and　effective　and　well…considered　replies？＇3＇　I　myself　heard　a　witness　answer　a　judge　who　asked　him　about　the　weather　on　a　certain　day；　‘‘Look　here；　to　drag　me　so　many　miles　to　this　place　in　order　to　discuss　the　weather　with　me；that's。''　The　old　man　was　quite　right　because　the　detached　question　had　no　particular　purpose。　But　when　it　was　circumstantially　explained　to　him　that　the　weather　was　of　uttermost　significance　in　this　case；　how　it　was　related　thereto；　and　how　important　his　answer　would　be；　he　went　at　the　question　eagerly；

＇1＇　v。　Volkmar：　Lehrbuch　der　Psychologie。　Cothen　1875

＇2＇　K。　Haselbrunner：　Die　Lehre　von　der　Aufmerkeamkeit　Vienna　1901。

＇3＇　E。　Wiersma　and　K。　Marbe：　Untersuchungen　ber　die　sogenannten　Aufmerk…　samkeitsschwankungen。　Ztseh。　f。　Psych。　XXVI；　168　（1901）。

　and　did　everything　thinkable　in　trying　to　recall　the　weather　in　question　by　bringing　to　bear　various　associated　events；　and　did　finally　make　a　decidedly　valuable　addition　to　the　evidence。　And　this　is　the　only　way　to　capture　the　attention　of　a　witness。　If　he　is　merely　ordered　to　pay　attention；　the　result　is　the　same　as　if　he　were　ordered　to　speak　louder；he　does　it；　in　lucky　cases；　for　a　moment；　and　then　goes　on　as　before。　Attention　may　be　generated　but　not　commanded；　and　may　be　generated　successfully　with　everybody；　and　at　all　times；　if　only　the　proper　method　is　hit　upon。　The　first　and　absolute　requirement　is　to　have　and　to　show　the　same　interest　oneself。　For　it　is　impossible　to　infect　a　man　with　interest　when　you　have　no　interest　to　infect　with。　There　is　nothing　more　deadly　or　boresome　than　to　see　how　witnesses　are　examined　sleepily　and　with　tedium；　and　how　the　witnesses；　similarly　infected；　similarly　answer。　On　the　other　hand；　it　is　delightful　to　observe　the　surprising　effect　of　questions　asked　and　heard　with　interest。　Then　the　sleepiest　witnesses；　even　dull　ones；　wake　up：　the　growth　of　their　interest；　and　hence　of　their　attention；　may　be　followed　step　by　step；　they　actually　increase　in　knowledge　and　their　statements　gain　in　reliability。　And　this　simply　because　they　have　seen　the　earnestness　of　the　judge；　the　importance　of　the　issue；　the　case；　the　weighty　consequences　of　making　a　mistake；　the　gain　in　truth　through　watchfulness　and　effort；　the　avoidance　of　error　through　attention。　In　this　way　the　most　useful　testimony　can　be　obtained　from　witnesses　who；　in　the　beginning；　showed　only　despairing　prospects。

Now；　if　one　is　already　himself　endowed　with　keen　interest　and　resolved　to　awaken　the　same　in　the　witnesses；　it　is　necessary　carefully　to　consider　the　method　of　so　doing　and　how　much　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　what　has　already　been　established；　or　merely　been　said　and　received　as　possibly　valuable。　On　the　one　hand　it　is　true　that　the　witness　can　be　roused　to　attention　and　to　more　certain　and　vigorous　responses　according　to　the　quantity　of　detail　told　him。＇1＇　On　the　other；　caution　and　other　considerations　warn　against　telling　an　unknown　witness；　whose　trustworthiness　is　not　ascertained；　delicate　and　important　matters。　It　is　especially　difficult　if　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　presuppositions　and　combinations；　or　if　he　is　to　be　shown　how　the　case　would　alter　with　his　own　answer。　The　last　especially　has　the　effect　of　suggestion　and　must　occur　in　particular　and　in　general　at　those　times　alone　when　his　statement；

＇1＇　Slaughter：　The　Fluctuations　of　Attention。　Am。　Jour。　of　Psych。　XII；　313　（1901）。

　or　some　part　of　it；　is　apparently　of　small　importance　but　actually　of　much。　Often　this　importance　can　be　made　clear　to　the　witness　only　by　showing　him　that　the　difference　in　the　effect　of　his　testimony　is　pointed　out　to　him　because　when　he　sees　it　he　will　find　it　worth　while　to　exert　himself　and　to　consider　carefully　his　answer。　Any　one　of　us　may　remember　that　a　witness　who　was　ready　with　a　prompt；　and　to　him　an　indifferent　reply；　started　thinking　and　gave　an　essentially　different　answer；　even　contradictory　to　his　first；　when　the　meaning　and　the　effect　of　what　he　might　say　was　made　clear　to　him。

How　and　when　the　witness　is　to　be　told　things　there　is　no　rule　for。　The　wise　adjustment　between　saying　enough　to　awaken　interest　and　not　too　much　to　cause　danger　is　a　very　important　question　of　tact。　Only　one　certain　device　may　be　recommendedit　is　better　to　be　careful　with　a　witness　during　his　preliminary　examination　and　to　keep　back　what　is　known　or　suspected；　thus　the　attention　and　interest　of　the　witness　may　perhaps　be　stimulated。　If；　however；　it　is　believed　that　fuller　information　may　increase　and　intensify　the　important　factors　under　examination；　the　witness　is　to　be　recalled　later；　when　it　is　safe；　and　his　testimony　is；　under　the　new　conditions　of　interest；　to　be　corrected　and　rendered　more　useful。　In　this　case；　too；　the　key　to　success　lies　in　increase　of　effortbut　that　is　true　in　all　departments　of　law；　and　the　interest　of　a　witness　is　so　important　that　it　is　worth　the　effort。


Topic　III。　PHENOMENOLOGY：　STUDY　OF　THE　OUTWARD　EXPRESSION　OF　MENTAL　STATES。

Section　10。


Phenomenology　is　in　general　the　science　of　appearances。　In　our　usage　it　is　the　systematic　co…ordination　of　those　outer　symptoms　occasioned　by　inner　processes；　and　conversely；　the　inference　from　the　symptoms　to　them。　Broadly　construed；　this　may　be　taken　as　the　study　of　the　habits　and　whole　bearing　of　any　individual。　But　essentially　only　those　external　manifestations　can　be　considered　that　refer　back　to　definite　psychical　conditions；　so　that　our　phenomenology　may　be　defined　as　the　semiotic　of　normal　psychology。　This　science　is　legally　of　immense　importance；　but　has　not　yet　assumed　the　task　of　showing　how　unquestionable　inferences　may　be　drawn　from　an　uncounted　collection　of　outward　appearances　to　inner　processes。　In　addition；　observations　are　not　numerous　　enough；　far　from　accurate　enough；　and　psychological　research　not　advanced　enough。　What　dangerous　mistakes　premature　use　of　such　things　may　lead　to　is　evident　in　the　teaching　of　the　Italian　positivistic　school；　which　defines　itself　also　as　psychopathic　semiotic。　But　if　our　phenomenology　can　only　attempt　to　approximate　the　establishment　of　a　science　of　symptoms；　it　may　at　least　study　critically　the　customary　popular　inferences　from　such　symptoms　and　reduce　exaggerated　theories　concerning　the　value　of　individual　symptoms　to　a　point　of　explanation　and　proof。　It　might　seem　that　our　present　task　is　destructive；　but　it　will　be　an　achievement　if　we　can　show　the　way　to　later　development　of　this　science；　and　to　have　examined　and　set　aside　the　useless　material　already　to　hand。


Section　II。　（a）　General　External　Conditions。


‘‘Every　state　of　consciousness　has　its　physical　correlate；''　says　Helmholtz；＇1＇　and　this　proposition　contains　the　all　in　all　of　our　problem。　Every　mental　event　must　have　its　corresponding　physical　event＇2＇　in　some　form；　and　is　therefore　capable　of　being　sensed；　or　known　to　be　indicated　by　some　trace。　Identical　inner　states　do　not；　of　course；　invariably　have　identical　bodily　concomitants；　neither　in　all　individuals　alike；　nor　in　the　same　individual　at　different　times。　Modern　methods　of　generalization　so　invariably　involve　danger　and　incorrectness　that　one　can　not　be　too　cautious　in　this　matter。　If　generalization　were　permissible；　psychical　events　would　have　to　be　at　least　as　clear　as　physical　processes；　but　that　is　not　admissible　for　many　reasons。　First　of　all；　physical　concomitants　are　rarely　direct　and　unmeditated　expressions　of　a　psychical　instant　（e。　g。；　clenching　a　fist　in　threatening）。　Generally　they　stand　in　no　causal　relation；　so　that　explanations　drawn　from　physiological；　anatomical；　or　even　atavistic　conditions　are　only　approximate　and　hypothetical。　In　addition；　accidental　habits　and　inheritances　exercise　an　influence　which；　although　it　does　not　alter　the　expression；　has　a　moulding　effect　that　in　the　course　of　time　does　finally　so　recast　a　very　natural　expression　as　to　make　it　altogether　unintelligible。　The　phenomena；　moreover；　are　in　most　cases　personal；　so　that　each　individual　means　a　new　study。　Again　the　phenomena　rarely　remain　constant；　e。　g。：　we　call　a　thing　habit；

＇1＇　H。　L。　Helmholtz：　ber　die　Weebselwirkungen　der　Naturkrfte。　Knigsberg　1854。

＇2＇　A。　Lehmann：　Die　krperliche　usserungen　psychologischer　Zustnde。　Leipsig　Pt。　I；　1899。　Pt。　II；　1901。

　we　say；　‘‘He　has　the　habit　of　clutching　his　chin　when