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CONTENTS

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

INTRODUCTION¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡REVISION¡¡OF¡¡HISTORY¡¡

PART¡¡I



THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGICAL¡¡ELEMENTS¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡MOVEMENTS





BOOK¡¡I



GENERAL¡¡CHARACTERISTICS¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTIONS



CHAPTER¡¡I¡£¡¡¡¡SCIENTIFIC¡¡AND¡¡POLITICAL¡¡REVOLUTIONS¡¡

1¡£¡¡¡¡Classification¡¡of¡¡Revolutions

2¡£¡¡¡¡Scientific¡¡Revolutions

3¡£¡¡¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions

4¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡results¡¡of¡¡Political¡¡Revolutions



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡RELIGIOUS¡¡REVOLUTIONS

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡study¡¡of¡¡Religious¡¡Revolutions¡¡in

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡comprehension¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Political

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolutions

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡beginnings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation¡¡and¡¡its¡¡first

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡disciples

3¡£¡¡¡¡Rational¡¡value¡¡of¡¡the¡¡doctrines¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation

4¡£¡¡¡¡Propagation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Reformation

5¡£¡¡¡¡Conflict¡¡between¡¡different¡¡religious¡¡beliefs¡£¡¡¡¡The

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡impossibility¡¡of¡¡tolerance¡¡

6¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡results¡¡of¡¡Religious¡¡Revolutions¡¡



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡ACTION¡¡OF¡¡GOVERNMENTS¡¡IN¡¡REVOLUTIONS

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡feeble¡¡resistance¡¡of¡¡Governments¡¡in¡¡time¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolution

2¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡the¡¡resistance¡¡of¡¡Governments¡¡may¡¡overcome

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolution

3¡£¡¡¡¡Revolutions¡¡effected¡¡by¡¡Governments¡£¡¡¡¡Examples£º¡¡China£»

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Turkey£»¡¡&c

4¡£¡¡¡¡Social¡¡elements¡¡which¡¡survive¡¡the¡¡changes¡¡of¡¡Government

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡after¡¡Revolution

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

CHAPTER¡¡IV¡£¡¡THE¡¡PART¡¡PLAYED¡¡BY¡¡THE¡¡PEOPLE¡¡IN¡¡REVOLUTIONS

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡stability¡¡and¡¡malleability¡¡Of¡¡the¡¡national¡¡mind

2¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡the¡¡People¡¡regards¡¡Revolution

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡supposed¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡People¡¡during¡¡Revolution

4¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡popular¡¡entity¡¡and¡¡its¡¡constituent¡¡elements



BOOK¡¡II



THE¡¡FORMS¡¡OF¡¡MENTALITY¡¡PREVALENT¡¡DURING¡¡REVOLUTION



CHAPTER¡¡I¡£¡¡INDIVIDUAL¡¡VARIATIONS¡¡OF¡¡CHARACTER¡¡IN¡¡TIME¡¡OF

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡REVOLUTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡Transformations¡¡of¡¡Personality

2¡£¡¡¡¡Elements¡¡of¡¡character¡¡predominant¡¡in¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Revolution



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡MYSTIC¡¡MENTALITY¡¡AND¡¡THE¡¡JACOBIN¡¡MENTALITY¡¡

1¡£¡¡¡¡Classification¡¡of¡¡mentalities¡¡predominant¡¡in¡¡time¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolution

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Mystic¡¡Mentality¡¡

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Jacobin¡¡Mentality



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡AND¡¡CRIMINAL¡¡MENTALITIES

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Mentality

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Criminal¡¡Mentality



CHAPTER¡¡IV¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡CROWDS

1¡£¡¡¡¡General¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd

2¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡the¡¡stability¡¡of¡¡the¡¡racial¡¡mind¡¡limits¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡oscillations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡mind¡¡of¡¡the¡¡crowd

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡role¡¡of¡¡the¡¡leader¡¡in¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Movements



CHAPTER¡¡V¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡ASSEMBLIES

1¡£¡¡¡¡Psychological¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡Revolutionary

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Assemblies

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Clubs

3¡£¡¡¡¡A¡¡suggested¡¡explanation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡progressive¡¡exaggeration

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡sentiments¡¡in¡¡assemblies



PART¡¡II



BOOK¡¡I



THE¡¡ORIGINS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡FRENCH¡¡REVOLUTION



CHAPTER¡¡1¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡OPINIONS¡¡OF¡¡HISTORIANS¡¡CONCERNING¡¡THE¡¡FRENCH

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡REVOLUTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Historians¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡Fatalism¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡hesitation¡¡of¡¡recent¡¡Historians¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution

4¡£¡¡¡¡Impartiality¡¡in¡¡History

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGICAL¡¡FOUNDATIONS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡ANCIEN¡¡REGIME

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Absolute¡¡Monarchy¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Basis¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡inconveniences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime

3¡£¡¡¡¡Life¡¡under¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime

4¡£¡¡¡¡Evolution¡¡of¡¡Monarchical¡¡feeling¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Revolution



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡MENTAL¡¡ANARCHY¡¡AT¡¡THE¡¡TIME¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTION

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡AND¡¡THE¡¡INFLUENCE¡¡ATTRIBUTED¡¡TO¡¡THE¡¡PHILOSOPHERS

1¡£¡¡¡¡Origin¡¡and¡¡Propagation¡¡of¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Ideas

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡supposed¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Philosophers¡¡of¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡eighteenth¡¡century¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡Genesis¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Their¡¡dislike¡¡of¡¡Democracy¡¡

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡philosophical¡¡ideas¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Bourgeoisie¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡



CHAPTER¡¡IV¡£¡¡¡¡PSYCHOLOGICAL¡¡ILLUSIONS¡¡RESPECTING¡¡THE¡¡FRENCH

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡REVOLUTION¡¡

1¡£¡¡¡¡Illusions¡¡respecting¡¡Primitive¡¡Man£»¡¡the¡¡return¡¡to¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡State¡¡of¡¡Nature£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡People

2¡£¡¡¡¡Illusions¡¡respecting¡¡the¡¡possibility¡¡of¡¡separating¡¡Man

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡from¡¡his¡¡Past¡¡and¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡Transformation¡¡attributed

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Law

3¡£¡¡¡¡Illusions¡¡respecting¡¡the¡¡Theoretical¡¡Value¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Principles



BOOK¡¡II



THE¡¡RATIONAL£»¡¡AFFECTIVE£»¡¡MYSTIC£»¡¡AND¡¡COLLECTIVE¡¡INFLUENCES¡¡ACTIVE

DURING¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTION



CHAPTER¡¡I¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡CONSTITUENT¡¡ASSEMBLY

1¡£¡¡¡¡Psychological¡¡influences¡¡active¡¡during¡¡the¡¡French

Revolution

2¡£¡¡¡¡Dissolution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Ancien¡¡Regime¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡assembling¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡States¡¡General

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡constituent¡¡Assembly



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡LEGISLATIVE¡¡ASSEMBLY

1¡£¡¡¡¡Political¡¡events¡¡during¡¡the¡¡life¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Legislative

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Assembly

2¡£¡¡¡¡Mental¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Legislative¡¡Assembly



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡CONVENTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Legend¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention

2¡£¡¡¡¡Results¡¡of¡¡the¡¡triumph¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Jacobin¡¡Religion

3¡£¡¡¡¡Mental¡¡characteristics¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention



CHAPTER¡¡IV¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡GOVERNMENT¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡CONVENTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡activity¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Clubs¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Commune¡¡during¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Convention

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Government¡¡of¡¡France¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Convention£º¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Terror

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡End¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Beginnings¡¡of¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Directory

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

CHAPTER¡¡V¡£¡¡¡¡INSTANCES¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡VIOLENCE

1¡£¡¡¡¡Psychological¡¡Causes¡¡of¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Violence¡¡

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Tribunals

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Terror¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Provinces



CHAPTER¡¡VI¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡ARMIES¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Assemblies¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Armies

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Struggle¡¡of¡¡Europe¡¡against¡¡the¡¡Revolution

3¡£¡¡¡¡Psychological¡¡and¡¡Military¡¡Factors¡¡which¡¡determined¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡success¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Armies



CHAPTER¡¡VII¡£¡¡¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡LEADERS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTION



1¡£¡¡¡¡Mentality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡men¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡respective

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡violent¡¡and¡¡feeble¡¡characters

2¡£¡¡¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Commissaries¡¡or¡¡Representatives

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡®¡®on¡¡Mission''

3¡£¡¡¡¡Danton¡¡and¡¡Robespierre

4¡£¡¡¡¡Fouquier¡­Tinville£»¡¡Marat£»¡¡Billaud¡­Varenne£»¡¡&c¡£

5¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡destiny¡¡of¡¡those¡¡Members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Convention¡¡who

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡survived¡¡the¡¡Revolution



BOOK¡¡III



THE¡¡CONFLICT¡¡BETWEEN¡¡ANCESTRAL¡¡INFLUENCES¡¡AND¡¡REVOLUTIONARY

PRINCIPLES



CHAPTER¡¡I¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡LAST¡¡CONVULSIONS¡¡OF¡¡ANARCHY¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡DIRECTORY

1¡£¡¡¡¡Psychology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory

2¡£¡¡¡¡Despotic¡¡Government¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Directory¡£¡¡¡¡Recrudescence¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡Terror

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Advent¡¡of¡¡Bonaparte

4¡£¡¡¡¡Causes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Duration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡RESTORATION¡¡OF¡¡ORDER¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡CONSULAR¡¡REPUBLIC

1¡£¡¡¡¡How¡¡the¡¡work¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution¡¡was¡¡confirmed¡¡by¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Consulate

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡re¡­organisation¡¡of¡¡France¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Consulate

3¡£¡¡¡¡Psychological¡¡elements¡¡which¡¡determined¡¡the¡¡success¡¡of

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡the¡¡work¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Consulate



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡POLITICAL¡¡RESULTS¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡CONFLICT¡¡BETWEEN

TRADITIONS¡¡AND¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡PRINCIPLES¡¡DURING¡¡THE¡¡

LAST¡¡CENTURY

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡psychological¡¡causes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡continued¡¡Revolutionary

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Movements¡¡to¡¡which¡¡France¡¡has¡¡been¡¡subject

2¡£¡¡¡¡Summary¡¡of¡¡a¡¡century's¡¡Revolutionary¡¡Movements¡¡in¡¡France





PART¡¡III



THE¡¡RECENT¡¡EVOLUTION¡¡OF¡¡THE¡¡REVOLUTIONARY¡¡PRINCIPLES

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

CHAPTER¡¡I¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡PROGRESS¡¡OF¡¡DEMOCRATIC¡¡BELIEFS¡¡SINCE¡¡THE

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡REVOLUTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡Gradual¡¡propagation¡¡of¡¡Democratic¡¡Ideas¡¡after¡¡the

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Revolution

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡unequal¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡three¡¡fundamental¡¡principles

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Revolution

3¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Democracy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡¡®¡®Intellectuals''¡¡and¡¡Popular

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Democracy

4¡£¡¡¡¡Natural¡¡Inequalities¡¡and¡¡Democratic¡¡Equalisation¡¡



CHAPTER¡¡II¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡RESULTS¡¡OF¡¡DEMOCRATIC¡¡EVOLUTION

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡influence¡¡upon¡¡social¡¡evolution¡¡of¡¡theories¡¡of¡¡no

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡rational¡¡value

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡Jacobin¡¡Spirit¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Mentality¡¡created¡¡by

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Democratic¡¡Beliefs

3¡£¡¡¡¡Universal¡¡Suffrage¡¡and¡¡its¡¡representatives

4¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡craving¡¡for¡¡Reforms

5¡£¡¡¡¡Social¡¡distinctions¡¡in¡¡Democracies¡¡and¡¡Democratic¡¡Ideas

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡in¡¡various¡¡countries



CHAPTER¡¡III¡£¡¡¡¡THE¡¡NEW¡¡FORMS¡¡OF¡¡DEMOCRATIC¡¡BELIEF

1¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡conflict¡¡between¡¡Capital¡¡and¡¡Labour

2¡£¡¡¡¡The¡¡evolution¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Working¡¡Classes¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Syndicalist

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Movement

3¡£¡¡¡¡Why¡¡certain¡¡modern¡¡Democratic¡¡Governments¡¡are¡¡gradually

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡being¡¡transformed¡¡into¡¡Governments¡¡by¡¡Administrative¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡

¡¡¡¡¡¡¡¡Castes



CONCLUSIONS









THE¡¡PSYCHOLOGY¡¡OF¡¡REVOLUTION



INTRODUCTION



THE¡¡REVISION¡¡OF¡¡HISTORY



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period¡¡of¡¡revision¡¡of¡¡the¡¡various¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡knowledge¡£¡¡¡¡Having

recognised¡¡that¡¡there¡¡are¡¡no¡¡phenomena¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡first¡¡cause

is¡¡still¡¡accessible£»¡¡science¡¡has¡¡resumed¡¡the¡¡examination¡¡of¡¡her

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