the psychology of revolution-第35部分

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West　and　the　South；　revolted。　　The　insurrection；　which　was　headed

by　many　of　the　expelled　deputies；　would　perhaps　have　succeeded

had　not　the　compromising　assistance　of　the　royalists　caused　men

to　fear　the　return　of　the　ancien　regime。　　At　Toulon；　in　fact；　the

insurgents　acclaimed　Louis　XVII。



The　civil　war　thus　begun　lasted　during　the　greater　part　of　the

life　of　the　Revolution。　　It　was　fought　with　the　utmost　savagery。　

Old　men；　women；　children；　all　were　massacred；　and　villages　and

crops　were　burned。　　In　the　Vendee　alone　the　number　of　the　killed

was　reckoned　at　something　between　half　a　million　and　a　million。



Civil　war　was　soon　followed　by　foreign　war。　　The　Jacobins　thought

to　remedy　all　these　ills　by　creating　a　new　Constitution。　　It　was

always　a　tradition　with　all　the　revolutionary　assemblies　to

believe　in　the　magic　virtues　of　formula。　　In　France　this

conviction　has　never　been　affected　by　the　failure　of　experiments。



‘‘A　robust　faith；''　writes　one　of　the　great　admirers　of　the

Revolution；　M。　Rambaud；　‘‘sustained　the　Convention　in　this

labour；　it　believed　firmly　that　when　it　had　formulated　in　a　law

the　principles　of　the　Revolution　its　enemies　would　be　confounded；

or；　still　better；　converted；　and　that　the　advent　of　justice　would

disarm　the　insurgents。''



During　its　lifetime　the　Convention　drafted　two　Constitutions

that　of　1793；　or　the　year　I。；　and　that　of　1795；　or　the　year　III。　

The　first　was　never　applied；　an　absolute　dictatorship　very　soon

replacing　it；　the　second　created　the　Directory。



The　Convention　contained　a　large　number　of　lawyers　and　men　of

affairs；　who　promptly　comprehended　the　impossibility　of

government　by　means　of　a　large　Assembly。　　They　soon　divided　the

Convention　into　small　committees；　each　of　which　had　an

independent　existencebusiness　committees；　committees　of

legislation；　finance；　agriculture；　arts；　&c。　　These　committees

prepared　the　laws　which　the　Assembly　usually　voted　with　its　eyes

closed。



Thanks　to　them；　the　work　of　the　Convention　was　not　purely

destructive。　　They　drafted　many　very　useful　measures；　creating

important　colleges；　establishing　the　metric　system；　&c。　　The

majority　of　the　members　of　the　Assembly；　as　we　have　already　seen；

took　refuge　in　these　committees　in　order　to　evade　the　political

conflict　which　would　have　endangered　their　heads。



Above　the　business　committees；　which　had　nothing　to　do　with

politics；　was　the　Committee　of　Public　Safety；　instituted　in

April；　1793；　and　composed　of　nine　members。　　Directed　at　first　by

Danton；　and　in　the　July　of　the　same　year　by　Robespierre；　it

gradually　absorbed　all　the　powers　of　government；　including　that

of　giving　orders　to　ministers　and　generals。　　Carnot　directed　the

operations　of　the　war；　Cambon　the　finances；　and　Saint…Just　and

Collot…d'Herbois　the　general　policy。



Although　the　laws　voted　by　the　technical　committees　were　often

very　wise；　and　constituted　the　lasting　work　of　the　Convention；

those　which　the　Assembly　voted　in　a　body　under　the　threats　of　the

delegations　which　invaded　it　were　manifestly　ridiculous。



Among　these　laws；　which　were　not　greatly　in　the　interests　of　the

public　or　of　the　Convention　itself；　were　the　law　of　the　maximum；

voted　in　September；　1793；　which　pretended　to　fix　the　price　of

provisions；　and　which　merely　established　a　continual　dearth；　the

destruction　of　the　royal　tombs　at　Saint…Denis；　the　trial

of　the　queen；　the　systematic　devastation　of　the　Vendee　by

fire；　the　establishment　of　the　Revolutionary　Tribunal；　&c。



The　Terror　was　the　chief　means　of　government　during　the

Convention。　　Commencing　in　September；　1793；　it　reigned　for　six

monthsthat　is；　until　the　death　of　Robespierre。　　Vainly　did

certain　Jacobins　Danton；　Camille　Desmoulins；　Herault　de

Sechelles；　&c。propose　that　clemency　should　be　given　a　trial。　

The　only　result　of　this　proposition　was　that　its　authors　were

sent　to　the　scaffold。　　It　was　merely　the　lassitude　of　the　public

that　finally　put　an　end　to　this　shameful　period。



The　successive　struggles　of　the　various　parties　in　the　Convention

and　its　tendency　towards　extremes　eliminated　one　by　one　the　men

of　importance　who　had　once　played　their　part　therein。　　Finally　it

fell　under　the　exclusive　domination　of　Robespierre。　　While　the

Convention　was　disorganising　and　ravaging　France；　the　armies　were

winning　brilliant　victories。　　They　had　seized　the　left　bank　of

the　Rhine；　Belgium；　and　Holland。　　The　treaty　of　Basle　ratified

these　conquests。



We　have　already　mentioned；　and　we　shall　return　to　the　matter

again；　that　the　work　of　the　armies　must　be　considered　absolutely

apart　from　that　of　the　Convention。　　Contemporaries　understood

this　perfectly；　but　to…day　it　is　often　forgotten。



When　the　Convention　was　dissolved；　in　1795；　after　lasting　for

three　years；　it　was　regarded　with　universal　distrust。　　The

perpetual　plaything　of　popular　caprice；　it　had　not　succeeded　in

pacifying　France；　but　had　plunged　her　into　anarchy。　　The

general　opinion　respecting　the　Convention　is　well　summed　up　in　a

letter　written　in　July；　1799；　by　the　Swedish　charge

d'affaires；　Baron　Drinkmann：　　‘‘I　venture　to　hope　that　no　people

will　ever　be　governed　by　the　will　of　more　cruel　and　imbecile

scoundrels　than　those　that　have　ruled　France　since　the　beginning

of　her　new　liberty。''





3。　　The　End　of　the　Convention。　　The　Beginnings　of　the　Directory。





At　the　end　of　its　existence；　the　Convention；　always　trusting　to

the　power　of　formulae；　drafted　a　new　Constitution；　that　of　the

year　III。；　intended　to　replace　that　of　1793；　which　had　never　been

put　into　execution。　　The　legislative　power　was　to　be　shared　by　a

so…called　Council　of　Ancients　composed　of　150　members；　and　a

council　of　deputies　numbering　500。　　The　executive　power　was

confided　to　a　Directory　of　five　members；　who　were　appointed　by

the　Ancients　upon　nomination　by　the　Five　Hundred；　and　renewed

every　year　by　the　election　of　one　of　their　number。　　It　was

specified　that　two…thirds　of　the　members　of　the　new　Assembly

should　be　chosen　from　among　the　deputies　of　the　Convention。　　This

prudent　measure　was　not　very　efficacious；　as　only　ten　departments

remained　faithful　to　the　Jacobins。



To　avoid　the　election　of　royalists；　the　Convention　had　decided　to

banish　all　emigres　in　perpetuity。



The　announcement　of　this　Constitution　did　not　produce　the

anticipated　effect　upon　the　public。　　It　had　no　effect　upon　the

popular　riots；　which　continued。　　One　of　the　most　important　was

that　which　threatened　the　Convention　on　the　5th　of　October；　1795。



The　leaders　hurled　a　veritable　army　upon　the　Assembly。　

Before　such　provocation；　the　Convention　finally　decided　to　defend

itself；　and　sent　for　troops；　entrusting　the　command　to　Barras。



Bonaparte；　who　was　then　beginning　to　emerge　from　obscurity；　was

entrusted　with　the　task　of　repression。　　With　such　a　leader　action

was　swift　and　energetic。　　Vigorously　pounded　with　ball　near　the

church　at　St。　Roch；　the　insurgents　fled；　leaving　some　hundreds　of

dead　on　the　spot。



This　action；　which　displayed　a　firmness　to　which　the　Convention

was　little　habituated；　was　only　due　to　the　celerity　of　the

military　operations；　for　while　these　were　being　carried　out　the

insurgents　had　sent　delegates　to　the　Assembly；　which；　as　usual；

showed　itself　quite　ready　to　yield　to　them。



The　repression　of　this　riot　constituted　the　last　important　act　of

the　Convention。　　On　the　26th　of　October；　1795；　it　declared　its

mission　terminated；　and　gave　way　to　the　Directory。



We　have　already　laid　stress　upon　some　of　the　psychological

lessons　furnished　by　the　government　of　the　Convention。　　One　of

the　most　striking　of　these　is　the　impotence　of　violence　to

dominate　men's　minds　in　permanence。



Never　did　any　Government　possess　such　formidable　means　of　action；

yet　in　spite　of　the　permanent　guillotine；　despite　the　delegates

sent　with　the　guillotine　into　the　provinces；　despite　its

Draconian　laws；　the　Convention　had　to　struggle　perpetually

against　riots；　insurrections；　and　conspiracies。　　The　cities；　the

departments；　and　the　faubourgs　of　Paris　were　continually　rising

in　revolt；　although　heads　were　falling　by　the　thousand。



This　Assembly；　which　thought　itself　sovereign；　fought　against　the

invincible　forces　which　were　fixed　in　men's　minds；　and　which

material　constraint　was　powerless　to　overcome。　　Of　these　hidden

motive　forces　it　never　understood　the　power；　and　it　struggled

against　them　in　vain。　　In　the　end　the　invisible　forces　triumphed。







CHAPTER　V



INSTANCES　OF　REVOLUTIONARY　VIOLENCE



1。　　Psychological　Causes　of　Revolutionary　Violence。



We　have　shown　in　the　course　of　the　preceding　chapters　that　the

revolutionary　theories　constituted　a　new　faith。




Humanitarian　and　sentimental；　they　exalted　liberty　and

fraternity。　　But；　as　in　many　religions；　we　can　observe　a　complete

contradiction　between　doctrine　and　action。　　In　practice　no

liberty　was　tolerated；　and　fraterni