the psychology of revolution-第8部分

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We　must　not　hope　to　see　peoples　possessed　by　strong　beliefs

readily　achieve　tolerance。　　The　only　people　who　attained　to

toleration　in　the　ancient　world　were　the　polytheists。　　The

nations　which　practise　toleration　at　the　present　time　are　those

that　might　well　be　termed　polytheistical；　since；　as　in　England

and　America；　they　are　divided　into　innumerable　sects。　

Under　identical　names　they　really　adore　very　different　deities。



The　multiplicity　of　beliefs　which　results　in　such　toleration

finally　results　also　in　weakness。　　We　therefore　come　to　a

psychological　problem　not　hitherto　resolved：　how　to　possess　a

faith　at　once　powerful　and　tolerant。



The　foregoing　brief　explanation　reveals　the　large　part　played　by

religious　revolutions　and　the　power　of　beliefs。　　Despite　their

slight　rational　value　they　shape　history；　and　prevent　the　peoples

from　remaining　a　mass　of　individuals　without　cohesion　or

strength。　　Man　has　needed　them　at　all　times　to　orientate　his

thought　and　guide　his　conduct。　　No　philosophy　has　as　yet

succeeded　in　replacing　them。







CHAPTER　III



THE　ACTION　OF　GOVERNMENTS　IN　REVOLUTIONS



1。　　The　feeble　resistance　of　Governments　in　time　of　Revolution。



Many　modern　nationsFrance；　Spain；　Italy；　Austria；　Poland；

Japan；　Turkey；　Portugal；　&c。have　known　revolutions　within　the

last　century。　　These　were　usually　characterised　by　their

instantaneous　quality　and　the　facility　with　which　the　governments

attacked　were　overthrown。



The　instantaneous　nature　of　these　revolutions　is　explained　by　the

rapidity　of　mental　contagion　due　to　modern　methods　of　publicity。　

The　slight　resistance　of　the　governments　attacked　is　more

surprising。　　It　implies　a　total　inability　to　comprehend　and

foresee　created　by　a　blind　confidence　in　their　own　strength。



The　facility　with　which　governments　fall　is　not　however　a　new

phenomenon。　　It　has　been　proved　more　than　once；　not　only　in

autocratic　systems；　which　are　always　overturned　by　palace

conspiracies；　but　also　in　governments　perfectly　instructed　in　the

state　of　public　opinion　by　the　press　and　their　own　agents。



Among　these　instantaneous　downfalls　one　of　the　most　striking　was

that　which　followed　the　Ordinances　of　Charles　X。　　This　monarch

was；　as　we　know；　overthrown　in　four　days。　　His　minister

Polignac　had　taken　no　measures　of　defence；　and　the　king　was　so

confident　of　the　tranquillity　of　Paris　that　he　had　gone　hunting。　

The　army　was　not　in　the　least　hostile；　as　in　the　reign　of　Louis

XVI。；　but　the　troops；　badly　officered；　disbanded　before　the

attacks　of　a　few　insurgents。



The　overthrow　of　Louis…Philippe　was　still　more　typical；　since　it

did　not　result　from　any　arbitrary　action　on　the　part　of　the

sovereign。　　This　monarch　was　not　surrounded　by　the　hatred　which

finally　surrounded　Charles　X。；　and　his　fall　was　the　result　of　an

insignificant　riot　which　could　easily　have　been　repressed。



Historians；　who　can　hardly　comprehend　how　a　solidly　constituted

government；　supported　by　an　imposing　army；　can　be　overthrown　by　a

few　rioters；　naturally　attributed　the　fall　of　Louis…Philippe　to

deep…seated　causes。　　In　reality　the　incapacity　of　the　generals

entrusted　with　his　defence　was　the　real　cause　of　his　fall。



This　case　is　one　of　the　most　instructive　that　could　be　cited；　and

is　worthy　of　a　moment's　consideration。　　It　has　been　perfectly

investigated　by　General　Bonnal；　in　the　light　of　the　notes　of　an

eye…witness；　General　Elchingen。　　Thirty…six　thousand　troops　were

then　in　Paris；　but　the　weakness　and　incapacity　of　their　officers

made　it　impossible　to　use　them。　　Contradictory　orders　were　given；

and　finally　the　troops　were　forbidden　to　fire　on　the　people；　who；

moreoverand　nothing　could　have　been　more　dangerouswere

permitted　to　mingle　with　the　troops。　　The　riot　succeeded　without

fighting　and　forced　the　king　to　abdicate。



Applying　to　the　preceding　case　our　knowledge　of　the

psychology　of　crowds；　General　Bonnal　shows　how　easily　the　riot

which　overthrew　Louis…Philippe　could　have　been　controlled。　　He

proves；　notably；　that　if　the　commanding　officers　had　not

completely　lost　their　heads　quite　a　small　body　of　troops　could

have　prevented　the　insurgents　from　invading　the　Chamber　of

Deputies。　　This　last；　composed　of　monarchists；　would　certainly

have　proclaimed　the　Count　of　Paris　under　the　regency　of　his

mother。



Similar　phenomena　were　observable　in　the　revolutions　of　Spain　and

Portugal。



These　facts　show　the　role　of　petty　accessory　circumstances

in　great　events；　and　prove　that　one　must　not　speak　too　readily　of

the　general　laws　of　history。　　Without　the　riot　which　overthrew

Louis…Philippe；　we　should　probably　have　seen　neither　the　Republic

of　1848；　nor　the　Second　Empire；　nor　Sedan；　nor　the　invasion；　nor

the　loss　of　Alsace。



In　the　revolutions　of　which　I　have　just　been　speaking　the　army

was　of　no　assistance　to　the　government；　but　did　not　turn　against

it。　　It　sometimes　happens　otherwise。　　It　is　often　the　army　which

effects　the　revolution；　as　in　Turkey　and　Portugal。　　The

innumerable　revolutions　of　the　Latin　republics　of　America　are

effected　by　the　army。



When　a　revolution　is　effected　by　an　army　the　new　rulers　naturally

fall　under　its　domination。　　I　have　already　recalled　the　fact　that

this　was　the　case　at　the　end　of　the　Roman　Empire；　when　the

emperors　were　made　and　unmade　by　the　soldiery。



The　same　thing　has　sometimes　been　witnessed　in　modern　times。　　The

following　extract　from　a　newspaper；　with　reference　to　the

Greek　revolution；　shows　what　becomes　of　a　government　dominated　by

its　army：



‘‘One　day　it　was　announced　that　eighty　officers　of　the　navy　would

send　in　their　resignations　if　the　government　did　not　dismiss　the

leaders　of　whom　they　complained。　　Another　time　it　was　the

agricultural　labourers　on　a　farm　（metairie）　belonging　to　the

Crown　Prince　who　demanded　the　partition　of　the　soil　among　them。　

The　navy　protested　against　the　promotion　promised　to　Colonel

Zorbas。　　Colonel　Zorbas；　after　a　week　of　discussion　with

Lieutenant　Typaldos；　treated　with　the　President　of　the　Council　as

one　power　with　another。　　During　this　time　the　Federation　of　the

corporations　abused　the　officers　of　the　navy。　　A　deputy　demanded

that　these　officers　and　their　families　should　be　treated　as

brigands。　　When　Commander　Miaoulis　fired　on　the　rebels；　the

sailors；　who　first　of　all　had　obeyed　Typaldos；　returned　to　duty。　

This　is　no　longer　the　harmonious　Greece　of　Pericles　and

Themistocles。　　It　is　a　hideous　camp　of　Agramant。''



A　revolution　cannot　be　effected　without　the　assistance　or　at

least　the　neutrality　of　the　army；　but　it　often　happens　that　the

movement　commences　without　it。　　This　was　the　case　with　the

revolutions　of　1830　and　1848；　and　that　of　1870；　which　overthrew

the　Empire　after　the　humiliation　of　France　by　the　surrender　of

Sedan。



The　majority　of　revolutions　take　place　in　the　capitals；　and　by

means　of　contagion　spread　through　the　country；　but　this　is　not　a

constant　rule。　　We　know　that　during　the　French　Revolution　La

Vendee；　Brittany；　and　the　Midi　revolted　spontaneously　against

Paris。





2。　　How　the　resistance　of　Governments　may　overcome　Revolution。





In　the　greater　number　of　the　revolutions　enumerated　above；　we

have　seen　governments　perish　by　their　weakness。　　As　soon　as　they

were　touched　they　fell。



The　Russian　Revolution　proved　that　a　government　which　defends

itself　energetically　may　finally　triumph。



Never　was　revolution　more　menacing　to　the　government。　　After　the

disasters　suffered　in　the　Orient；　and　the　severities　of　a　too

oppressive　autocratic　regime；　all　classes　of　society；　including　a

portion　of　the　army　and　the　fleet；　had　revolted。　　The　railways；

posts；　and　telegraph　services　had　struck；　so　that　communications

between　the　various　portions　of　the　vast　empire　were　interrupted。



The　rural　class　itself；　forming　the　majority　of　the　nation；　began

to　feel　the　influence　of　the　revolutionary　propaganda。　　The　lot

of　the　peasants　was　wretched。　　They　were　obliged；　by　the　system

of　the　mir；　to　cultivate　soil　which　they　could　not　acquire。　　The

government　resolved　immediately　to　conciliate　this　large　class　of

peasants　by　turning　them　into　proprietors。　　Special　laws　forced

the　landlords　to　sell　the　peasants　a　portion　of　their　lands；　and

banks　intended　to　lend　the　buyers　the　necessary　purchase…money

were　created。　　The　sums　lent　were　to　be　repaid　by　small　annuities

deducted　from　the　product　of　the　sale　of　the　crops。



Assured　of　the　neutrality　of　the　peasants；　the　government　could

contend　with　the　fanatics　who　were　burning　the　towns；　throwing

bombs　among　the　crowds；　and　waging　a　merciless　warfare。　　All

those　who　could　be　taken　were　killed。　　Such　extermination　is　the

only　method　discovered　since　the　beginning　of　the　world　by　which

a　society　can　be　protected　against　the　rebels　who　wish　to　destroy

it。



The　victorious　government　understood　moreover　the　necessity　of

satisfying　t